Kansas
Business
Education
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Handbook
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Compiled/Edited
by:
Scott R. Jones
Fort Hays State University
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Preface
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Introduction:
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Originally,
the Kansas Business Education Curriculum Handbook was published by the Kansas
Competency-Based Curriculum Center, housed at Washburn University and funded
by the Kansas State Department of Education.
After the publication of the handbook, KSDE stopped funding projects
through through the Center. All
electronic files were destroyed.
The
mission of the Kansas Competency-Based Curriculum Center was to serve Kansas
educators and administrators by advancing curriculum design and delivery
through research, technical assistance, and product development. With the
publication of the Kansas Business Education Curriculum Handbook, the Center
provided to business educators a basic resource for educating students with
quality curriculum standards encompassing pre-vocational fundamentals and
occupational training in business services and technology. More than any
other occupational area, business education integrates basic education
concepts with specific training in a myriad of work-oriented competencies for
job placement and further education. Along with this strong tradition of
vocational preparation, literacy in business, marketing, and entrepreneurship
is rapidly becoming an important component of the general education of all
secondary and postsecondary students, regardless of occupational or
educational goals.
Representatives from all aspects of business education in
Kansas have provided guidelines and input for the development of this
curriculum handbook. Funds provided by the Kansas State Board of Education
and leadership from state personnel reflect the state's commitment to quality
curriculum and instructional resources for business education. And finally, a
new vision of business education as an integrated and interrelated part of
the overall education program for all students provided basic direction in
determining the design and content of this document.
This document has been
“gently revised” (Fall, 2013) by Business Teacher Educators at Fort Hays
State University and Kansas State University, for use in pre-service Business
Teacher Education coursework.
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Concept:
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The Kansas Business Education
Curriculum Handbook is based, in part, on business education
documents previously developed by the state. The society, however, in which
business education graduates will enter holds different characteristics from
the industrial society for which existing resources are designed. Clearly,
traditional job titles (office support personnel and sales clerks)
inadequately describe the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required of
business and marketing education to meet the challenges of an empowered and
high-tech work environment.
The
Advisory & Editorial Board, as well as the many writers who contributed
to this document, are well aware of the demographic and education changes
occurring that impact the restructuring effort in business
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Design:
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The
original curriculum handbook had four major sections encompassing Operational
Topics, Education Initiatives & Mandates, Secondary Courses, and
Postsecondary Courses. The 2013 revised edition omitted the
Postsecondary Course section, as jurisdiction has changed and the Kansas
Board of Regents now supervises such programs, these are outside of the realm
of our students pre-service needs. (An
archived edition does exist that is available to review old courses and
resource information from 1995 at both the secondary and postsecondary
level.)
Operational topics (Section I) will assist instructors in
creating viable business education programs reflecting high standards,
comprehensive instruction, cultural diversity, and effective teaching
strategies.
Information
included in the Education Initiatives & Mandates (Section II) will assist
the business educator in several ways. Current initiatives such as Career
Clusters, Common Core, and Articulation Agreements are examined in terms that
are applicable to the business instructor. Competency-based education and
contextual learning are explained, detailing their implications in the
business classroom. A rationale for workplace skills (now known as career readiness) instruction and information
concerning academic integration will enable the business instructor to create
crucial connections and linkages of the student's total educational
experience. This section also includes a glossary of terminology and a
comprehensive publishers list.
Section II contain information and guidelines for
secondary business and marketing courses that make up career cluster courses
for the Finance, Marketing, and Business Administration Pathways. Each course
unit begins with a brief overview or description. This is followed by course
outcomes and related enabling objectives. Next is a course content outline,
followed by workplace skills identified as applicable to this particular
course of study. The secondary units also present intradisciplinary and
interdisciplinary connections to help facilitate the integration process.
Other components include suggestions for involving business and industry in
content delivery, and in some instances, a listing of resources unique to
this course unit.
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Users:
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Business and Marketing instructors
can use this curriculum handbook to:
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Provide a basis for curriculum design and development
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Assist in analyzing and evaluating current curriculum and
instructional resources
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Provide a component to curriculum planning that assesses
student outcomes relative to course content and teaching techniques
Administrators and instructors can
use this document when:
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Conducting curriculum review
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Adapting/adopting curriculum
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Evaluating instructional resources and support
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Establishing local curriculum standards and policies
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Evaluating programs
Teacher educators will find this
document useful when:
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Providing students with guidelines for analysis and
evaluation of curriculum and other instructional resources
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Providing students with essential elements to plan
programs, develop courses, and create awareness of national standards and
mandates
State Department of Education
personnel can use this document to:
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Provide a guide for curriculum development Act as a tool
to appraise the status of curriculum and other instructional resources used
within the state .
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Assist in appraising instructional materials under
consideration for state adoption and adaptation action
Student benefits include:
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Readily available details of course outcomes and skills
required
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Accurate information regarding instruction activities and
achievement standards
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Endnote:
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While
the original document was subsidized by KSDE and the Curriculum Center at
Washburn University, this “gently
revised” edition is neither a product of their support, nor a reflection
or endorsement of the content within.
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Mission, Scope, Roles and Function of
Career Pathways
in Kansas
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Historical
Mission
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The
mission of career/technical education in Kansas has been one of providing
persons with access to opportunities to acquire competencies for employment
in the workplace and/or providing a foundation for further individual career
development through additional education. The mission of career-technical
education also is to actively promote economic development opportunities
throughout the state.
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College
& Career Readiness
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Today,
we view the advancement of Career Pathways as an opportunity for all Kansas
students to engage in academic, technical, and career education that will
offer them opportunities for career entry and continued education. Many continue to recognize that quality
educational programs (especially in the areas of College and Career Readiness)
promote economic stability and development for Kansas.
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Scope
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Career education is an integral
component of the public education system in Kansas. CTE should provide
students, both secondary and postsecondary, with an opportunity to attain
occupational competence. The system is committed to helping all individuals
attain their occupational objectives and achieve an optimum level of personal
competency and satisfaction consistent with their individual interests,
aptitudes, desires, and abilities. Institutions providing postsecondary
career-technical education may more directly become involved with economic
development activities through initial training, retraining, and skills
upgrading for the state's workforce.
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Role
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CTE
programs should be conducted by secondary and postsecondary education
agencies to prepare learners for both postsecondary education and career
entry. These programs have traditionally emphasized preparation for
employment. Increasingly, they also include preparation for entrepreneurship.
Traditionally, vocational programs were designed to prepare people for work
in occupations requiring less than baccalaureate level training. Today, we
recognize that while a bachelors degree may not be required, continuing
education (life-long learning) often is required. Furthermore, it is recognized that
credentialing is becoming more important to employers, industry leaders, and
labor organizations.
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Functions
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Kansas
high schools should provide the following functions:
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Career
counseling services to assist students in making informed and meaningful
career and educational choices
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Appropriate
training and/or supportive services for persons who are disadvantaged or have
special career needs
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Basic
education in preparation for entry into occupational/career pathways at the
postsecondary level
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Employability
skills training for initial career entry
Kansas
Career Centers should provide the following functions:
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Instruction
in developmental education to assist students enrolled in the schools
technical programs to successfully complete the program Employability and job
specific skill training to prepare students for employment
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Technical
training to assist persons for advancement in a current occupation or to
retrain for a new occupation
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Customized
training programs designed to assist business and industry to train employees
in job-related skills Technical and consulting services to business and
industry and to local agencies designed to promote economic development in
the state
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Assistance
to local agencies in providing special programs and services for special
needs clientele, such as individuals who have mental or physical impairments
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Student
support services designed to assist students enrolled in the area Area Career
Center programs
Kansas
community colleges should provide the following career education functions:
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Courses,
associate degree programs, certificates, and other career-technical training
designed to prepare persons for work, to advance in a current occupation, or
to retrain for new occupations
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Instruction
in developmental education designed to prepare students for the colleges'
career-technical programs
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Customized
educational and training programs designed to assist business and industry
train its employees
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Technical
and consulting services to business and industry and local agencies designed
to promote economic development
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Assistance
to local agencies in providing special programs and services for special
needs clientele, such as individuals who have mental or physical disabilities
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Student
support services designed to assist students enrolled in the colleges'
programs
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Philosophy & Objectives
of Business Education
in Kansas
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Business
Education represents a broad and diverse discipline that is included in all
types of educational delivery systems--elementary and secondary schools,
one-and two-year technical schools and colleges, and four-year colleges and
universities. Business education can begin at any level; it can be
interrupted for varying periods of time; and it can be continued throughout
the lifespan of the individual. Business Education prepares students for
entry into and advancement in jobs within business, and equally important, it
prepares students to handle their own business affairs and to function
intelligently as consumers and citizens in a business economy.
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Strategic Directions for Education in Kansas
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So that each person will have the skills and values
necessary to contribute to our evolving society, the Kansas State Board of
Education in November 1992, established the following strategic directions
for the structuring of education in Kansas: address the following skills and
behaviors that have been identified in national reports such as the SCANS report
as needed for employment:
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Learning
to learn
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Reading,
writing, and computation
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Listening
and oral communication
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Creative
thinking and problem solving
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Self-esteem;
goal setting; motivation; and personal career development
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Interpersonal
skills, negotiations, and teamwork
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Organizational
effectiveness and leadership
Potential Strategies
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The assessment and remediation of
basic skills or employability enhancement skills will be available through
community colleges for all postsecondary schools.
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Elementary and secondary exit
outcomes will require basic skill development and employability enhancement
(QPA)
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Community colleges and area Career
Centers will develop a program designed to market the need for new workplace
skills
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Integration of Learning and
Working
Potential Strategies
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Secondary and postsecondary
programs will integrate academic and technical skills. This integration will
require academic and vocational teachers to fonn teams in order to integrate
skills required in the workplace.
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Special programs will be developed
to retrain the unemployed or underemployed in new workplace skills
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High Skills and High Wage Jobs
Potential Strategies
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Secondary and postsecondary
schools will integrate academic and technical skills.
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All program data will be disaggregated
by race, sex and socioeconomic status. The program data must proportionately
reflect the communities and populations they serve
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Access for Individuals to
Infonnation and Education
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Elementary education will include
an objective to encourage all children to develop dreams of work goals
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A program for training teachers,
parents, and students about career options will be developed and provided to
schools and community centers
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All citizens of Kansas will have
access to training and retraining through community colleges and area
career/technical centers
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The Need for Free Enterprise Education
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Free
enterprise cannot function effectively without a well informed citizenry. It
is therefore of the utmost importance that students understand our economic system.
In their roles as consumers, workers, and citizens, students need to be aware
of the interaction of forces within that system.
Business education in particular must develop an
appreciation for the political, economic, and cultural heritage of American
society. Youth need to develop a desire to carry on the best traditions and
practices of a private enterprise economy and to improve their economic
citizenship through the study of the business, government, and economic
environments in which they live.
Positioning
Kansas to be economically competitive in a global society while increasing
the quality of life of its citizens requires a re- examination of the
economic and educational structures of the past.
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The Need for
Vocational Education
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Since preparation for work is an integral part of public
education in Kansas, job preparation represents a significant component of
education. The term vocational education means "organized educational
programs which are directly related to the preparation of individuals in paid
or unpaid employment" (Public Law 98-524). In the vocational program
approval process in Kansas, the five basic competencies and three necessary
skill categories identified in the SCANS report are addressed. They are as
follows:
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Resources: Identifies, organizes,
and allocates resources
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Interpersonal: Works with others
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Information: Acquires and uses
information
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Systems: Understands complex
inter-relationships
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Technology: Works with a variety
of technologies
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Basic Skills: Reads, writes, performs
arithmetic and mathematical operations, listens, and speaks
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Thinking Skills: Thinks
creatively, makes decisions, solves problems, visualizes, knows how to learn,
reasons
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Personal Qualities: Displays
responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity, and
honesty
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Purposes
of Business Education in Kansas Secondary Schools
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The
movement from an industrial model with its business and labor incentives to
an information and service base with a focus on customer needs demands a new
focus upon Kansas citizens and what they will be doing to ensure their
quality of life.
Business
education prepares students for entry into and advancement in jobs within
business; and equally important, it prepares students to handle their own
business affairs and to function intelligently as consumers and citizens in a
business economy. In addition, business education prepares students to
continue their education at the postsecondary level if they so desire. In
educating for business, business education is vocational education for
business majors. Education about business is general education for all
students.
Because
of the vital importance of business education within our society, the
curriculum is devised to cover three major functions: (1) general business information
of personal-use value to all citizens and consumers; (2) vocational
education; (3) preparation for further education at a technical school, two-
or four-year college or university.
Business
education must offer to the student who wishes to pursue a career in business
those skills, abilities, and understanding that will allow him or her to
enter, perform, and progress in a business occupation after graduation.
Therefore,
successful business education programs have several important characteristics.
They are as follows:
❖ To meet the needs of all students
by addressing all levels of ability, cultural and economic backgrounds,
differing vocational goals, and special needs
❖ To provide general educational
values including occupational intelligence, economic understanding, and
consumer competencies
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To
promote character growth and development including human relations, good work
habits, positive attitudes toward fulfillment of responsibilities, and
establishment of standards of ethical values
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To
develop the skills of logical thinking, communication, problem solving, and
decision making
❖ To provide preparation for
immediate employment
❖ To offer personal-use skills and
knowledge
❖ To offer a basis for further study
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Licensure of
Business/ Marketing Teachers
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Business
teacher certification regulations for the local school district are usually
outlined in the individual school's Personnel Handbook. The State Board of
Education, Licensure and Teacher Education Regulations, effective in 2003,
should also be reviewed.
Because
of the nature of business, marketing, and finance career clusters, it is
essential for a teacher to be highly qualified to provide students with
relevant information.
For
licensure requirements, see the Licsensed Personnel Guide in the Teacher
Licensure and Accreditation section of the KSDE website: www.ksde.org/default.aspx?tabid=1648
For further information, contact:
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Equity & Cultural Diversity
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Equity in the classroom is a right
of all students, including business education students. It is the
responsibility of the business educator to promote an environment of learning
whereby all students, regardless of race, religion, or gender, are able to
achieve at their highest level while keeping their multicultural identities
intact. Business educators must employ a variety of instructional techniques
in order to help all students achieve at their highest levels and must also
understand that multicultural differences can enhance the classroom learning
environment. Business educators must not only be aware of the various biases
which can hinder learning but must also strive to make sure that students do
not allow biases to invade the classroom environment.
Schools in the United States serve
as a pluralistic society bestowed with multiethnic, multicultural
communities. Many school classrooms are likely to be characterized by
cultural and ethnic diversity; a teacher may take advantage of this cultural
and ethnic diversity by employing principles of multicultural education.
At the heart of this topic is a
concern about equity and fair treatment for groups that have traditionally
experienced discrimination. Originally restricted to minority racial groups,
multicultural education now applies to differences based on language, gender,
class, and exceptionality as well as racial and ethnic differences.
It is critical for teachers to
develop classrooms which treat all students equally, regardless of their
gender, racial or ethnic heritage, or learning difficulties. In creating
multicultural classrooms effective teachers adopt an ecological perspective
and view their classrooms as a system of interconnected elements--students,
teachers, learning materials, instruction, and goals--all of which interact
to produce or inhibit student learning.
Multicultural education is an
interdisciplinary approach to curriculum. The major perspectives on
multicultural education include modifying instructional procedures for
teaching the exceptional and culturally different; promoting intergroup
acceptance and respect; redesigning the curricula to emphasize ideas and
contributions from other cultures; using school-wide efforts to affinn
cultural diversity and achieve equal opportunities; and using ways to empower
students to critically examine and take action against inequalities that
exist in society.
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Special Education, Special Needs, and At-Risk
Students
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Business education has a responsibility to meet the needs
of students with special education needs, students with disabilities, and
students who are at risk of not completing their education. With inclusion
becoming more common on schools, business educators must strive to meet the
physical and emotional needs of all students.
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Special
Education
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The
Special Education For Exceptional Children Act defines exceptional children
as those who differ in physical, mental, social, emotional, or educational
characteristics to the extent that special educational services are necessary
to enable them to progress toward the maximum of their abilities or
capacities.
Special education legislation also establishes the right
of each exceptional student to be provided an appropriate education with non
exceptional students (inclusion) to the maximum extent possible. Therefore,
business educators may be required to adapt courses to meet the needs of
students with exceptionalities such as giftedness, hearing impairment,
learning disabilities, behavior disorders, visual impairment, language
disorders, and mental and physical disabilities.
Students who have been identified as in need of special
services are required to have an individualized education program (IEP)
developed for them. Classroom instructors are asked to attend IEP
conferences.
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Special
Needs Students
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Business
educators must accommodate students with special needs who are not classified
as special education students. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
(ADA) extends to individuals with disabilities civil rights protections
similar to those provided to all persons on the basis of race, sex, national
origin, and religion. The ADA is based on concepts of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 which states that equal opportunity must be afforded to individuals
with disabilities in places of employment, public accommodation, transportation,
state and local government services, and telecommunications.
For
business educators the implications of this act are such that reasonable
accommodations for persons with disabilities must be provided in the business
education classroom. This may entail changing room design and layout,
purchasing new furniture and equipment, and developing teaching strategies so
as to provide equal educational opportunities to all students in the
classroom.
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At-Risk
Students
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Students
may be considered at risk of not completing their education for reasons such
as teen pregnancy, poor performance history, poor self-concept,socio-economic
factors, and family expectations.
Students identified as being at-risk are encouraged to
remain in the educational system by placing them in an environment in which
they can succeed and by providing support personnel to help them resolve
issues which may lead to their choosing not to complete their education.
Special techniques and teaching methods may need to be developed and used to
help these students succeed in the classroom.
With
inclusion becoming more and more common in schools, the classroom teacher may
have to change teaching techniques and methods to provide students with the
best possible education. Sources of material and information in working with
special needs, special education, and at-risk students can be gathered from
school counselors, special education instructors, directors of special
education cooperatives, and special education departments at colleges and
universities.
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Career Counseling, Placement, and Follow-Up
Services
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Career
Counseling
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Secondary and postsecondary institutions should provide
career counseling to assist students in making informed and meaningful
occupational choices.
At
the secondary level, career counseling may be included in a career education
course or individual counseling may be provided by counselors. The business
educator should ensure that all business education courses include
information on "business" careers. At the postsecondary level,
career counseling may be offered by a career counseling office provided by
the institution. However, the business educator should ensure that sections
on "business" careers be included in specific courses. Business
education advisors may also offer career counseling on an individual basis to
both majors and non-majors.
Instructors must strive to help students understand the
importance of preparing resumes, writing letters of application, using job
search techniques, completing job applications, and responding to various
interviewing techniques. These items can and should be taught in most
business education courses.
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Placement
Services
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The
Kansas State Department of Education states that completers of CTE programs
are successfully placed if they meet one of the criteria below:
❖
member of the military full-time
❖
employed full-time
❖
pursuing additional education
❖
vocational schools and community
colleges may count successful placement as a student who has completed over
50 percent of a vocational program, is employed, and is not pursuing
additional education.
For
some business education programs, continued program funding is ~ dependent on
successful placement of students. In order to successfully place students,
business educators may use one (or a combination) of the following
strategies:
1)
Post and announce job openings
from journals and newspapers Post and announce job openings which are listed
by local companies
2)
Make contacts in the local
business community so that it is known the business education program is
producing quality students
3)
Use advisory committee members as
possible resources
4)
Encourage students to attend job
fairs and use the services of
5)
public employment agencies
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Follow-up
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Because
of government, state, or local requirements, graduate follow- up surveys may
need to be conducted. Follow-up systems not only provide evidence of the
strengths and weaknesses of programs but can also maintain public relations,
develop alumni support, and measure the effectiveness of programs.
Typically,
questionnaires are developed which meet the needs of the school in order that
all desired information is gathered. The information requested on
questionnaires may need to be reported to various agencies to ensure further
funding of programs.
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Recruitment of Students
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Introduction
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Business Education comprises one
of the primary areas in education in which students graduate with marketable
skills. It is the responsibility of the business educator to market these classes
to students, parents, counselors, administrators, and faculty.
The business teacher should seek
all avenues available for creating a close working relationship between the
business classroom, administration, parents, alumni, and the local business community.
A local advisory board composed of
area business people represented from upper-level management through
entry-level personnel can be helpful in establishing and maintaining good
public relations for the school and the program of study.
Utilizing the expertise of the
local business professional through industry tours or class presentations
enhances the education of the student.
The business educator should work
closely with the local chamber of commerce and other civic organizations to
plan activities beneficial to students and their educational activities. The
career area organizations establish good public relations and promote a
professional image to the public. A well-trained student is one of the
greatest assets a school can provide.
Public awareness of student
achievement, teacher achievement, and curriculum changes is achieved by
publicizing these activities in the school bulletin, student newspaper, and
parent newsletter.
Career guidance counselors and
teachers should discuss the relevance of business courses for immediate
employment or higher education as students plan toward their future goals and
careers.
The business teacher utilizes many
activities when recruiting students. Recruitment could include the following
activities:
➢ Student/Teacher Counseling
➢ Student/Student Contacts
➢ Class Presentations by
Teacher/Student/Graduate
➢ Brochure/Booklet/Newsletter from
the Business Department
➢ Maintaining and up-to-date
Departmental Website
➢ Bulletin Board Displays and
Posters
➢ Local and School Newspaper
Advertisements and Articles
➢ Guidance Counselors Informed of
Department Activities
➢ Open House
➢ Business Awards Assembly/Night
➢ Club Activities Involving
Prospective Students
➢ Professional Dress for Business
Day
➢ Shadow Day for Prospective Students
It is highly recommended that
membership affiliation with one business- student organization be an integral
part of the instructional program.
Because of a declining population
base, an increased emphasis on cost-cutting, the concern over the number of high
school students graduating without a marketable skill, and the fact that most
business courses are electives rather than required, business educators need
to find ways of promoting the business programs and of keeping the various
publics informed of the values to be gained from studying business courses.
Marketing activities can be
designed to help both employment- and college-bound students to see beyond
their immediate circumstances, to develop career aspirations and goals, and
to see the relationships between various business programs and opportunities
for employment and advancement on the job.
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Curriculum
Design and Articulation
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The
marketing strategies on the following pages will not increase enrollment in
your vocational program if the program lacks the ingredients of a successful
program.
Either
before, or in conjunction with the following marketing strategies, meet with
your advisory committee to review the curriculum. The advisory committee
should review the course outlines, competencies, hardware and software
technology, and training station opportunities. In addition, consult the Suggested Program Standards for Business Pathways to review the
requirements and recommendations.
Make a list of the areas that need improvement. With the help
of the advisory committee, construct a plan to redesign and upgrade the
curriculum. Analyze if the program content prepares students for entry-level
employment and/or postsecondary training.
Business
and computer technology coordinators/instructors from regional USDs,
Technical Academies, and community colleges should meet and discuss
articulation between their institutions. Review the vocational program
curriculum at the USD level and determine the competencies that students must
attain before graduation from the program. Compare the curriculum to the
local Technical Academies and community college Business programs.
If
skills and competencies are duplicated between the secondary and
postsecondary programs, design an articulation plan that will offer students
progressive experiences and a smooth transition between these programs. Agree
to a curriculum that will define the role of USD, technical school, and
community college programs. In addition, the articulation agreement should
provide for credit hours toward a certificate and/or two-year degree.
Enrollment will increase if students can obtain credit at their local
technical academy and/or community college.
Since
CTE programs/Career Pathways may compete for the same students, enrollment
will decrease in some programs if the problem is not addressed. By working
together, USDs, technical academies, and community colleges can market
benefits by showing progression in levels of expertise instead of offering a
duplication of skills and knowledges between institutions.
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Marketing
Strategies to Increase Enrollment
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Student-Teacher Counseling
Business
teachers can talk to prospective business students on a one- to-one basis and
explain the opportunities for business employment and the benefits to be
derived from business courses.
Student-Student Counseling
Business
education seniors (or majors) can talk to prospective business students on a
one-to-one basis and explain the values of business courses and the types of
skills and competencies that can be developed.
Presentations to Classes by
Business Teachers
Prior
to the enrollment period, business teachers can explain to the individual
classes the sequences of advanced training as well as other course offerings
in the business department. Emphasis should be placed on employment
opportunities and competencies learned.
Presentations to Classes by
Current Business Students
A
student (or a panel of students) from an advanced class can present to a
beginning class the importance of continuing in the business area and the
opportunities provided for business employment.
Presentations to Classes by Former
Business Students Who Are Currently Employed
Invite
fonner students to speak to classes about the benefits gained from completing
advanced business courses and the skills and techniques learned in classes
that are directly related to on-the-job situations. Fonner students also can
explain their jobs and the tasks that they perform in these jobs.
Course Descriptions and Sequence
Sheets
Make
Available To the student body as a whole,and current business students in
particular, the course offerings in the business department. Infonnation
about the courses should include course descriptions, prerequisites, and
grade-level restrictions. Job opportunities in the immediate business
community as well as projected employment trends can be provided.
Business Department
Booklet/Brochure
A
booklet giving course offerings, course sequences, prerequisites, and recent
pictures of students operating the equipment can be distributed to all or to
interested students. These booklets should be available with enrollment
materials. The booklet should include pictures of students on the job and of
graduates using equipment and skills learned in the business program. This
booklet, along with an introductory letter, could be sent to all incoming
students.
Visit Junior High Schools
Prior
to enrollment for high school, meet with the incoming students and with
junior high school guidance counselors and business teachers to describe the advantages
to be gained from taking courses in business. The general goals of business
courses should be explained as preparation for everyday living skills,
employment opportunities, and preparation for advanced study for a business
career.
Posters and Bulletin Board
Displays
Posters
displayed in classrooms and corridors can be used to promote various business
education classes. A business department bulletin board,locatedin a
prominentlocation,can be a goodadvertisementfor business classes. An
attractive room can also do much to keep students interested and motivated.
Guidance Counselors
One
of the best friends a business department can have is the guidance counselor.
The counselor can channel students into business classes during enrollment
procedures and during the time that career paths are being discussed. Be sure
that the counselors have a thorough understanding of the content of each
business program and course.
Local and School Newspaper
Advertisements and Articles
Keep
students, faculty, and parents aware of happenings in the business department
by writing articles for the newspapers. Advertisements for a shorthand class
might be an example. Let students do the composing and typing of articles for
the newspapers.
Business Education Interest Questionnaire
Prepare
and distribute Business Education Interest questionnaires to the student body
to determine if the business department is meeting the needs of the students
and to gain insight as to what the students would like to take and/or would
like to have offered.
Media Presentations
Presentations
of students in the classroom, on the job, and participating in club
activities are some of the most effective means of selling a business
program. The media presentations can be shown in a prominent location within
the building; used at meetings of the PTA, advisory board, and school board;
and shown to community- interest groups.
Open House
Sponsor
an open house for various groups to create interest in the business programs.
By highlighting the business facilities and equipment, the business
department can promote the programs and opportunities available for students.
Open houses could be held for special interest groups, faculty, alumni,
families, manpower trainees, and prospective students. At all open houses,
provide brochures about the business programs, course descriptions, and
employment opportunities and trends.
Annual Business Awards Assembly
Night
Present
certificates to students who have shown outstanding achievement in the
various business classes. The top student in each of the business areas could
also be given special recognition. Parents, administrators, and guidance
counselors should receive special invitations to attend. A noted business
educator or community business leader could be asked to be the guest speaker.
Recognition of Business Students
Who Have Received Awards
Business
students who receive awards in state and local contests or receive other
special awards should be recognized by announcements on the local radio
station, over the school intercom, and by articles in the local and school
newspapers.
Club Activities Involving
Prospective Students
Invite
prospective students to attend a special business club meeting. A
presentation given by current members to explain the employment opportunities
available to students taking business courses and the leadership qualities
gained by being a member of a business club should be emphasized. Provide a
special program and materials that promote the business department.
Dress for Business Day
To
help publicize business contests, business awards night, or upcoming special
events in the department, have students and business faculty dress up for a
day. A "Dress for Business Day" once each week or once each two
weeks also is a way of calling attention to the business department and its
preparation for business careers.
A Day on the Job
To
encourage students to enroll in the cooperative work-study program, have a
younger student "shadow" a senior work-study student for a day. The
younger student will have the opportunity to see first- hand the work
experience gained while still attending high school. Another valuable
experience for business students is to arrange for them to visit (and perhaps
work in) a business office for one day in the fall and one day in the spring.
Many business offices will permit students to visit for a day or more.
Business Department Newsletter
Print
a monthly or bimonthly newsletter explaining the department's activities,
student progress, special recognition of individual business teachers and
students, new programs implemented or new equipment obtained, and news of
past business graduates who have excelled on the job or in postsecondary
work. The newsletter should be distributed to students, administrators,
guidance and career counselors, and other staff members to promote the
business department.
|
||
|
Student Organizations
|
|||
|
It is highly recommended that
affiliation with one of the following business student organizations be an
integral part of the business education program.
There are three national
organizations for secondary students interested in careers in business that
have affiliated chapters in Kansas. These organizations are DECA: “Developing emerging leaders and
entrepreneurs”, Future Business Leaders of America (FBLA), and Business
Professionals of America (BPA).
|
|||
|
DECA
|
DECA is the most extensive student
organization, provide the most rigorous competitive event program which is
competency/performance-based.
Furthermore, DECA has a National Advisory Board of industry leaders in
the fields of marketing, finance, hospitality, and management. Kansas has over 50 high school DECA
Chapters. In addition, there is a
collegiate division which enables students to continue their participation,
if they so desire.
For More Information:
●
Emily
Sanders-Jones
●
Kansas
Department of Education
●
120
SE 10th Avenue
●
Topeka,
KS
|
||
|
FBLA
|
The Future Business Leaders of
America organization is for students in high schools interesting in business
and administrative support careers.
For More Information:
●
Connie
Lindell, Kansas Chair
●
Santa
Fe Trail High School
●
Route
1, Box 434
●
Carbondale,
KS 66414
●
785.665.7161
|
||
|
BPA
|
The Business Professionals of
America is for students whose program of leadership and development is
concentrated on curriculum in the office systems/office technology area.
For More Information:
●
Emily
Sanders-Jones
●
Kansas
Department of Education
●
120
SE 10th Avenue
●
Topeka,
KS
|
||
|
Student
Leadership Activities & CTSO’s
|
All Career Pathway programs must
integrate student leadership activities into the curriculum; for business
programs, these activities must be integrated into at least one business
course.
Two alternatives are available for
schools to fulfill this requirement.
Establish a local CTSO chapter:
If a portion of the students want
to join the CTSO and are willing to pay dues, a local chapter can be
established. Non-members may participate in the activities at a local level,
but not at the state level.
For business programs CTSO
(student leadership) activities must be implemented in at least one business
course. An appropriate place would be in the senior year, integrated into a
minimum of one course.
CTSO (student leadership)
activities are integrated into the curriculum (during the school day) and are
not extracurricular (after school).
The career/technical student
organizations shall be student centered, student directed, and teacher
coordinated. All members shall be involved in professional and service
projects. The goals of career/technical student organizations are to develop
leadership, improve social awareness, develop vocational competence in
business, strengthen citizenship skills, and to understand and promote
business.
No Local Chapter Established:
If none of the students are
willing to pay dues, course outlines must still reflect how student
leadership activities (established by the state advisors of each CTSO) are
implemented into the curriculum. For business & computer technology
programs you must implement activities in at least one business course. An appropriate
place would be in the senior year, integrated into a minimum of one course.
|
||
|
Advisory Committees
|
|||
|
Advisory committees have played a
vital role in the success of vocational programs for many years. Their value
is becoming even more important as the complexity in our occupational
structure continues to increase. This necessitates a constant revision within
each of the instructional programs. To maintain programs that meet current
occupational needs, vocational educators have found it one of their prime
responsibilities to consult representatives from business and industry.
An important first step toward
establishing, maintaining, or upgrading existing programs in any
vocational-technical program is the organization of the local advisory
committee.
An advisory committee may be
defined as a group of persons outside the educational profession, made up of
representative lay people, recognized and respected in their own fields of
work, who advise and assist educational personnel regarding the building and
maintaining of sound vocational education programs, based on the real needs
of a community, region, state, or nation.
There are usually two types of
advisory committees on the local level. The first is thegeneral advisory
committee,which serves in determining objectives and board policies in
connection with types of vocational services that are needed in the area
served by the local school. The members assist in developing a desirable
relationship with the public in regard to acceptance of vocational education.
The committee is made up of at least one member from each of the occupational
(or craft) advisory committees of the educational institution.
The occupational advisory
committee is organized to advise local school administrators regarding
instructional programs for a specific occupation. The occupational committee
serves a single program in an area vocational-technical school or in a
vocational department of a comprehensive high school or community college. An
occupational committee, representing a trade or vocational subject. should
have a minimum of four members, from skilled workers and management levels.
The general functions of the
occupational committee are to act in an advisory capacity for the development
of the vocational program and -... to advise local school administration in
developing preparatory vocational programs, part-time cooperative training
programs, and adult education programs needed for the business community.
Pathway Advisory Committees often
perform the following functions:
❖
Assist
in making a survey to determine the employment needs of the community and the
state Advise on general training policies based on the number of students to
be trained and the time constraints for the program
❖
Assist
in planning course outlines, adapting profiles, and reviewing courses of
study based on business needs
❖
Advise
on qualifications of teachers
❖
Assist
in providing training stations for cooperative education students
❖
Assist
in the placement of graduates
❖
Assist
in program evaluation
❖
Assist
in the development of a public relations program
❖
Support
state and national legislation affecting vocational education
❖
Advise
on the adequacy of and appropriations for facilities and equipment
❖
Provide
financial support by donating equipment, providing instructional aids, and/or
appealing to the public to support the school budget
❖
Advise
administration concerning room layout and the type and quality of material
and equipment needed
❖
Assist
teachers in relating their instruction to the needs of the community
❖
Review
and recommend approval of cooperative training plans and training agreements
❖
Assist
in youth organization activities
Programs supported with federal
funds are expected to make use of advisory committees. Accreditation review
teams look for advisory committee meeting minutes. Award programs recognize
outstanding committees and programs.
A minimum of three meetings should
be held each year with the time of meetings being established by the group as
a committee. A regular once-a-month meeting may be needed for occupational
advisory committees. The initial
meeting of the committee should lead to the adoption of a program of work for
the current school year. The school
representative may serve as a general consultant, chairperson, or recording secretary. For additional information and resources,
contact the Kansas Association of Career and Technical Education (K-ACTE).
|
|||
|
Teaching Strategies
|
|||
|
Introduction
|
At the heart of all types and
levels of business education is the professional business teacher. Teaching
procedures and knowledge of the learning process are the tools of the
business teacher's trade. Two elements appear to be crucial to the adequacy
of any educator in the teaching/learning process. The first is the teacher's
subject matter background in business studies. Second, each business teacher
must possess a working knowledge of instructional methods and techniques.
These methods and techniques can be classified according to these categories:
Getting Ready to Teach, Motivating Students to Learn, Handling Individual
Learning, Questioning Approaches, and Handling Group Learning.
|
||
|
Getting
Ready to Teach
|
Deciding What to Teach: The bulk
of this curricular guide provides commonly accepted course outcomes and
enabling objectives, content outlines, and suggested resources for the and
major business education courses.
Some educational institutions
provide detailed curriculum guides and course outlines, including textbooks
and resources. Others maintain curriculum libraries and have specialists
available to assist teachers with course and program development. Publishers,
professional associations, and curriculum centers also provide suggested
content, scope and sequence, and materials for planning learning. Other
states can provide (at little or no cost) suggested business education
content and sequence of courses. It is not an easy task to develop a model curriculum.
The instructor's goal is to
arrange and deliver curriculum in the most engaging and interesting way
possible. Using the outcomes and enabling objectives provided in this guide
(or by a job analysis completed by the instructor or an advisory committee)
determine the course's exit outcomes. These outcomes are the long-range plans
for the course. Unit plans are the intermediate stage of planning, and are
represented by one or more of the exit outcomes. Unit plans serve as the
springboard to the daily teaching plan, which includes one or more specific
objectives, a sequential arrangement of instructional methods and strategies,
and a procedure for evaluation.
|
||
|
Motivating
Students to Learn
|
Motivation is what energizes or
directs a student's attention, emotions, and activity. Students Motivated to
learn are attentive and eager to be engaged in learning activities. The
climate of the school as well as the classroom are strong determinants of
students' attitudes toward schooling and learning experiences.
A supportive, orderly environment
promotes a sense of security and risk taking in students. Teachers can
incorporate research-based instructional strategies and provide conditions
that promote student motivation. Some of the more common motivational ingredients
are presented in the remainder of this section.
|
||
|
Motivating
Skills
|
The conscious attempt by a teacher
to stimulate students in the classroom to achieve learning outcomes is a
complex process. Enthusiastic teachers who demonstrate their enjoyment of the
subject and teaching have a considerable advantage in commanding student
attention and stimulating their involvement. The effect of the teacher's
motivational-related behavior is reflected in the students' inclination to
attain the lesson objectives. The range of motivating behaviors displayed by
teachers is influenced considerably by their personality and attitude. A
highly motivating teacher consistently displays dynamic personal behaviors in
the classroom: moves purposefully about the classroom, uses nonverbal
behavior to create presence, uses their voice as an effective instrument,
controls the pace of the lesson, and varies the instructional mode.
|
||
|
School
& Classroom Climate
|
A supportive learning climate is a
precondition to promoting student motivation to learn. Students must feel
valued and secure in a predictable environment before positive outcomes can
occur. Communicating positive regard for each student encourages students to
take academic risks. An important factor influencing the amount of effort
expended by high school students is respect for the teacher.
|
||
|
Importance
of Self-Concept
|
Business teachers have an
excellent opportunity to influence the positive self-concept of students.
This can be accomplished through classroom success and by way of the many
recognition projects and awards gained through classroom activities and
student organization competition.
In addition, students want to
sense they belong and are accepted as part of the group, and they want to
perceive a level of self-esteem and peer recognition and status.
Additionally, most students must have a sense that the content and activities
in the class are directed toward meeting their perceived needs and desire for
self-fulfillment. Usually, some lack of motivation can be traced to
maladjustment in one or all of these areas.
|
||
|
Knowledge
of Results
|
Of all the psychological
principles of learning, knowledge of results Results: seems to be most basic
in keeping students motivated. Immediate, specific knowledge of results, in
addition to providing needed feedback for improved performance, has the
advantage of providing an incentive toward increased effort. Work which is
returned two or three weeks after it is turned in has little impact on
motivation. An even less acceptable practice is that of merely showing a
letter grade.
When giving negative feedback,
show how to perform correctly. Knowing that something has been done
incorrectly does not help students do it correctly. Negative feedback should
be accompanied with actions by the teacher demonstrating correct performance.
It is the teacher's responsibility to help students to focus on the
"process" or technique behind their performances and to understand
that incorrect techniques may achieve immediate objectives but will probably
inhibit later growth. Ideally, such feedback should be managed within a
single class period. Such knowledge of results tends to make students compete
with their own past performances. This is the most healthy form of
competition known.
|
||
|
Level
of Concern
|
One aspect of motivation is the
level of concern students have toward achieving a learning goal. Concern is
associated with stress. If students find a task too easy or the present level
of performance satisfactory, they will feel little need to achieve and will
put out little effort. On the other hand, if a task is too difficult or if it
causes too much stress, then the stress itself becomes dominant and little
energy will effort be to expended on learning. A moderate level of concern
stimulates effort to learn.
Closely connected to the strategy
of adjusting students' level of concern is that of helping students set
realistic and achievable goals. Students who set very high goals which are
unachievable can be encouraged to rethink what might be more realistic goals.
Similarly, students who always set low goals can be encouraged to raise their
sights.
In motivating students, it is
important to remember the difference between the use of reinforcement and the
use of punishment. In a school setting it often is natural to say why we
"should not" do something rather than why we "should."
Students generally respond far better to rewards for acceptable behavior than
to punishment for unacceptable behavior. Although both rewards and penalties
are necessary, the emphasis on rewards always should outweigh the emphasis on
penalties.
|
||
|
Control
of the Classroom
|
Classroom management and
instruction are interrelated. Classroom management is affected by: time
allocated to learning activities, how space is used in the classroom, helping
the classroom develop as a group, and attending to student motivation.
It is impossible to totally
separate the managerial and instructional functions of teaching. Each
teaching model or strategy a teacher chooses to use has its own social system
and its own task demands that influence behaviors of both teachers and
students. Classroom management is possibly the most important challenge
facing beginning teachers. It may be necessary to help students develop self.
management skills within a group setting.
|
||
|
Handling
Individual Learning
|
Individualized Modules
Business education courses in
office education, office technology, computer applications, and others can be
individualized very easily. Self-contained packets or modules have been
developed for certain competencies which group themselves into occupation or
career clusters. Students with differences in career goals could complete
packets or modules relating to that cluster. The Kansas Competency- Based
Curriculum Center, operated by the Kansas State Department of Education and
located at Washburn University in Topeka, develops competency-based
curriculum materials and has a lending library of materials from other
states. Also, the Center can refer the business teacher to other sources of
individualized materials.
Self-Paced/Programmed Materials
Although closely associated with
purely individualized instructional techniques, instructional programming has
found its place as an effective tool in conventional classes. When used in
conjunction with a teaching machine or even as a programmed textbook,
learners may proceed on their own through the provided program. Such programs
are especially valuable for diagnostic purposes and for students who have
been absent for extended periods of time. As most current programs are
commercially developed, one must make sure that local objectives are
effectively met. Instructional programs are most effective in the area of
mental skills. Although advanced students sometimes find them less
challenging due to slow pace and repetitiveness, programmed texts are often
successful in getting less- able learners to master basic facts and
understandings they would not acquire through whole-class instruction.
Contract Learning
This technique involves
personalized learning activities agreed upon between the students and the
teacher concerning individualized career goals and learning styles. Each
student can become involved in specially selected activities, the
accomplishment of which results in a certain grade level or achievement.
Contracts encourage less-able learners in reviewing fundamental concepts by
allowing them to choose materials and methods; they also stimulate advanced
students to go beyond the standard curriculum to independently acquire
inquiry and problem-solving behaviors. Most importantly, contracts allow
students to match their interests, needs, and aspirations to their own
learning styles.
Competency-Based Learning
This method involves the use of
specific competencies or tasks that have been developed by actual workers.
Students know what they must learn to be prepared for a certain occupation
(or for further education), and the teacher provides ways for each student to
gain competency. Instruction is individualized and the student's progress is
self-paced. For more information, refer to the "Competency-Based
Education" section listed in the Table of Contents.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Good software is the key to
effective use of computer-assisted instruction. A major advantage of
computer-assisted instruction is its "patience," consistency, and
ability to motivate students. It allows for individualization, complements
student's being independent learners, and represents a current instructional
emphasis--process-oriented learning that requires active participation of
students.
Homework
Homework is one of the most
important practices for establishing a successful academic environment. When
it is effective, homework can be a strategic part of teaching. Homework that
is assigned by a mentor for practice, participation, preparation, personal
development, reinforcement, or as an extension of class study, will increase
individual achievement. Before assigning homework, develop interesting,
positive assignments, using contracts or skill cards; also, stress the reason
for the timing and nature of the assignment. To have a positive affect on
student achievement and attitudes, homework should be regularly assigned,
clearly stated, regularly collected, promptly graded, promptly returned, and,
if appropriate, reviewed.
|
||
|
Questioning
Approaches
|
Questioning
The skill of asking questions has
been called the heart of teaching. Questioning is involved in some way with
every teaching method and technique in business education. Research into
questioning in the classroom has identified several areas of communication
employed as one teaches. Most of these types of communication involve
questions. Hoover identified seven types of questions that must be mastered
by the teacher:
●
Recall
Questions--Questions which call for the recitation of specific facts,
principles, or generalizations. Usually characterized by such words as who,
what, when, and where.
●
Comprehension
Questions--Questions which call for understanding, demanding manipulation of
data through interpretation, summarization, example, and definition. Usually
characterized by such keywords as how or why.
●
Analysis
Questions--Questions which call for taking apart data for the purpose of
discovering hidden meaning, relationships, or basic structure. Characterized
by using established criteria for discovering assumptions, motives,
implications, issues, logical fallacies, etc.
●
Evaluation
Questions--Questions which call for judgments, opinions, personal reactions,
and criticisms, based upon the learner's own criteria. Usually characterized
by such keywords as should, could, would, in your opinion, and so forth.
●
Problem
(Policy) Questions--An open-ended type of question, often preplanned by the
teacher, which forms the basis for an instructional experience. Often begins
with the word what but sometimes may begin with such keywords as why or how.
The word should or ought is stated or implied in the question.
●
Probing
Techniques--Asking intermediate questions, providing cues or hints, or asking
for clarification after the student indicates inability to respond
effectively to an initial question. The technique is designed to lead the
learner to the original question by capitalizing upon existing knowledge and
understanding.
●
Redirection--Involving
more than one student in the answer to a question. Such questions often
involve several "reasons" or "factors," and differences
of opinion.
|
||
|
Handling
Group Learning
|
Sociodramatic methods are
techniques designed to build and improve social interaction of an individual
with others in the class. These include role playing, simulations, and other
activities.
The Case Method
This method is used to resolve
problems, derive principles, apply concepts, resolve conflicts and develop
facility in using higher intellectual abilities. Students are provided with a
scenario or situation and asked to explore options to finish it. (This may
also be referred to as a simulation, role-playing, or problem-solving
activity.)
Discussion
In business education, discussion
often takes the form of guided group discussion, open-ended discussion, and
panel discussions. Interaction of students with each other and the teacher to
reach specific observable outcomes is central to discussion.
Debate
This usually includes a formal
issue or proposal in which two individuals or teams have opposing views. The
cases or evidence on both benefit sides are of presented the audience.
according Debate to lends agreed-upon itself to procedures situations in for
business the law or other general courses in which issues or controversy are
present.
Group/Cooperative Activities
This method emphasizes students'
working together in cooperative learning projects, engaging in peer tutoring,
and receiving a grade based on the group's performance. Cooperative learning
activities, in which students learn from one another have proven to be quite
suc- cessful. The instructional effects of cooperative learning go beyond
academic learning and specifically aim at promoting cooperative behavior,
developing social skills, communicating effectively and using problem-solving
strategies. Cooperative learning provides students with the opportunity to
discuss the process itself at the end of each session. This involvement in
process improvement is what quality experts claim is missing in many American
companies. This process helps students obtain the skills needed to be
successful employees in the nation's workforce.
Lecture
This can be formal or informal
teacher presentations to the class, often interspersed with other methods
such as overhead projections, films, questions, and note taking. The
presentations are sometimes designed to inform, to prepare for extended
learning activities, or to set the stage for independent study.
Film and Television Analysis
Films, audio cassettes, and
videotapes are presented with specific learning outcomes to encourage
effective thinking.
Review Techniques
A procedure in which learning
outcomes and subject matter content are touched upon to increase retention of
what has been learned prior to the review session. Review can be used in
business education to apply learning to new or unique situations, to prepare
for evaluation, or to move through a process which involves several
complicated steps.
Drill or Practice
Several business courses such as
keyboarding, shorthand, office machines, computer applications or others
usually have repetition under close supervision as part of their basic
learning method. Practice is intended to make mental or motor skills
permanent.
|
||
|
Placement of Keyboarding
within the Curriculum
|
|||
|
Keyboarding is taught in a variety
of classes at a variety of grade levels. The purposes of teaching keyboarding
and the content in a keyboarding course are dependent on the grade level and
a variety of other factors.
|
|||
|
Curriculum
Development
|
Keyboarding teachers at all grade
levels should work as a team to create a keyboarding curriculum appropriate
for their school. Anyone who teaches keyboarding must know how to keyboard
and know how to use the keyboarding and word processing software they will
teach. Secondary business teachers can teach elementary teachers how to
keyboard during inservice training. Inservice training of keyboarding
teachers should also cover theories of teaching psychomotor skills at various
age levels and methods of teaching keyboarding.
Each school may have a different
keyboarding curriculum. The grade level of the initial keyboarding
instruction may vary because it is dependent on the number of computers in
the school; the types of software being used to teach language arts, math and
science; and the number of phrases and sentences students are required to
type when they use those programs.
To help plan a keyboarding
curriculum, the keyboarding curriculum committee should answer the following
questions:
❖
In
what grades are computers used?
❖
Name
the computer programs being used at each grade level
❖
What
is the earliest grade level that computers are used by students to type
words, phrases, and sentences?
❖
Based
on the first three answers, at what grade level should keyboarding be taught
initially?
❖
Based
on the number of students at that grade level, how many computers are needed?
For how many hours a day?
❖
What
are the school's primary reasons for teaching keyboarding?
❖
How
long will the initial keyboarding instruction be? In hours? In weeks? In
minutes per class period?
❖
Based
on the length of instruction, what content will be covered?
❖
After
the initial keyboarding instruction, when will keyboarding skills be
reviewed? In what grades and classes? For how long?
❖
Who
will be involved in selecting computers, software, textbooks, and other
instructional materials?
❖
Will
keyboarding and/or word processing software be needed for stand-alone
computers or a network?
❖
How
many copies of these programs will be needed?
❖
Who
will teach keyboarding?
Research Basis:
Research has shown that students
in K-2 grades are not successful at keyboarding because of their motor
coordination, physical development, and attention span. Students in K-2
grades may be shown the appropriate fingering for the home row keys, but
usually no further instruction is effective in terms of time and skill
development. Students in 3rd-4th grades can achieve some success, but 5th-8th
grade students achieve higher speeds and increased accuracy.
Equipment & Software:
Computers and keyboarding software
are recommended. If word processing is an integral part of the keyboarding
software program, it can be used for language arts activities.
|
||
|
Keyboarding
in Elementary Education
|
Purposes:
❖
To
teach students to use the computer keyboard efficiently (faster than they can
handwrite)
❖
To
teach students to use the keyboard as a tool to use math, science, language
arts, and other software programs more efficiently
❖
To
improve students keyboarding skills in terms of speed and accuracy
❖
To
familiarize students with computer care and usage
Length of Initial Instruction for
Grades 3-6:
Minimum of 20 hours with 20-30
minute class periods and no fewer than 3-5 class periods a week.
Length of Initial Instruction for
Grades 7-8:
Minimum of 20 hours with 30-55
minute class periods and no fewer than 3-5 class periods a week. Total length
of instruction may be extended to nine weeks if content includes more skill
building, development of language arts skills, introduction of the numbers
row and 10-keypad, and the creation of documents for personal and school use.
Length of Follow-up Instruction:
Three to five hours of keyboarding
review at the beginning of each school year for the following two years after
initial instruction has been given in order to review key locations and build
speed.
Essential Keyboarding Content:
➢
The
alphabetic keys
➢
The
period, question mark, and caps lock keys
➢
How
disk to turn a computer on and off and how to save data to a
➢
Posture
and hand placement on keyboard
➢
Drills
for reinforcement and skill building
Note:
Number keys are usually not
introduced unless students use math software that requires them to use the
IO-keypad or the number row.
Language Arts Content:
★
Self-composition
of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and stories
★
Reading
and writing development
|
||
|
Evaluation
|
The following list of evaluation
criteria are presented in order of importance:
●
Use
of correct fingers to keyboard and manipulate the computer and proper posture
(feet, hand, and arm positions)
●
Follow
oral and written directions
●
Speed
and accuracy on timed writings
|
||
|
Keyboarding
in Middle Schools and Junior High Schools
|
Purposes and content of
instruction will vary depending on whether it is initial keyboarding
instruction or follow-up instruction. They will vary depending on the length
of instruction also.
Equipment and Software:
Computers and keyboarding software
are recommended. If word processing is an integral part of the keyboarding
software program, it can be used for language arts activities. For a course
longer than nine weeks, a different word processing program, such as
Microsoft Works or Clarisworks, is essential.
Keyboarding software is imperative
if some students enter this class with keyboarding skills and others without
keyboarding skills. Keyboarding software will allow students to review the
keys and build skills at their own pace.
While speed and accuracy are not
emphasized at the lower grade levels, they becoming increasingly important at
the middle/junior high school level.
Primary Outcomes:
❖
To
use the computer keyboard efficiently
❖
To
use the keyboard as a tool to work with math, science, language arts, and
other software programs more efficiently
❖
To
learn the proper care of a computer
❖
To
build speed and accuracy skills
Expanded Purposes for longer
courses:
❖
To
use the keyboard to create documents for home and school
❖
To
increase speed and accuracy skills
Length of initial Instruction:
20-45 hours or 4-9 weeks,
depending on the purpose of the instruction; a one-semester keyboarding
course will include more content and the use of word processing software.
Essential Keyboarding Content:
❖
The
alphabetic keys
❖
The
number keys and 10-key pad
❖
Speed
drills
❖
Accuracy
drills
❖
The
period, question mark, caps lock keys, and all special function keys
❖
How
to turn a computer on and off and how to save data to a disk
❖
Posture
and hand placement on keyboard
❖
Drills
for reinforcement and skill building
Optional Content:
❖
Word
processing functions for text-editing, centering, and underlining
❖
Self-composition
of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and stories
❖
Reading
and writing development
❖
Create
reports/documents for other classes
❖
Create
documents for home use
❖
Proofreading
|
||
|
Evaluation
|
The following list of evaluation
criteria are presented in order of importance (emphasis):
For a nine-week course or less:
❖
Use
of correct fingers to keyboard and manipulate the computer and demonstration
of proper posture (feet, hand, and arm positions)
❖
Speed
and accuracy on timed writings
❖
Accuracy
of other printouts
❖
Follow
oral and written directions
For a one-semester course:
❖
Accuracy
of printouts (format and proofreading)
❖
Speed
of producing documents
❖
Speed
and accuracy on timed writings
❖
Use
of correct fingers to keyboard and to manipulate the computer; also proper
posture (feet, hand, and arm positions)
|
||
|
Keyboarding
in the Secondary School
|
As more students learn to keyboard
in elementary and middle/junior high schools, secondary business teachers
need to:
❖
Test
students' keyboarding skills when they enter the course
❖
Use
keyboarding software that allows for self-paced instruction
❖
Allow
students to begin lessons at different points in the instructional sequence
❖
Assign
review work and reinforcement practice based on the assessment of student
skills
In future years, as more students
have rudimentary keyboarding skills when they enter this course, greater
emphasis should be placed on speed building and on creation of documents for
personal, school, and business use.
Purposes:
❖
To
prepare students to keyboard documents for personal use, school use, and
business use
❖
To
teach students to use the computer keyboard efficiently
❖
To
use the keyboard as a tool to work with other software programs
❖
To
use word processing software to create documents for personal, school, and business
use
|
||
|
|
Career Pathway
Coordinator
|
||
|
Responsibilities
|
PLE Coordination: The Pathway Coordinator is responsible for
implementing and operation the PLE portion of the Pathway. Ideally, Pathway Coordinators receive a
ten-month contract in order to secure appropriate PLE placements for the
school year.
Evaluation: The Pathway Coordinator should conduct a
formal written evaluation at the end of the grading period and/or termination
of the PLE.
Labor Regulations: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for explaining state and federal labor
regulations to student/learners and business partners.
Student Conferences: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for meeting with student/learners in a
conference setting to discuss achievement/performance, discipline,
absenteeism, etc.
Parent Conferences: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for meeting with parents/guardians
(secondary students) in a conference setting to discuss
achievement/performance, discipline, absenteeism, etc.
Student Leadership Activities: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for integrating student leadership
activities into the curriculum. Student Leadership Activities must be made
available to all students in the Career Pathway.
Coordinator Meetings: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for attending state CTE meetings,
conferences, etc. Participation in national CTE / Career Cluster conferences
and meetings is strongly encouraged.
State Meetings:
The Pathway Coordinator is responsible for attending meetings conducted by
the education program consultant for Business Mgmt, Marketing, and Finance
Pathways at the Kansas State Department of Education and for submitting all
requested information.
KSDE Career Pathway Reports: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for submitting KSDE Pathway reports, i.e.,
enrollment, completion, follow-up, etc.
Curriculum Development: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for revising curriculum to meet current
industry needs.
Advisory Committee: The
Pathway Coordinator is responsible for arranging the agenda and/or meeting
with the advisory committee.
Public Relations:
The Pathway Coordinator may be responsible for presentations to the
community, assisting employers, and marketing Career Pathways and activities
through local newspaper and radio stations.
Recruitment:
The Pathway Coordinator is responsible for identifying prospective students
who may be interested in receiving training and work experience in the Career
Pathway. This may involve recruitment activities and publications.
Other: The
Pathway Coordinator may choose to host an employee/employer banquet (or other
activity) at the end of the school term to thank and recognize participating
business partners for providing professional learning experiences. This
activity is optional, but builds goodwill.
|
||
|
Coordination
Time
|
The Business Career Clusters are a cooperative arrangement
between the school and community business leaders to provide related industry
and school experiences for students enrolled in the program. These two
experiences shall be planned and supervised by the school with cooperation
from business leaders so that each contributes to the student's education and
employability.
Best practice, an
instructor/coordinator of a PLE shall have one hour per day of coordination
time for up to 14 students. Fifteen or more students shall require two hours
of coordination time. In no situation,
should an individual instructor have more than 25 students to supervise at
the sametime in a PLE.
|
||
|
Extended
Contracts
|
The
PLE Coordinator should be employed for at least 10 months for school contract
time. The additional work weeks may allow the coordinator time for
solicitation of business partners; program promotion; and student interviews,
screening, selecting, and placement. The instructor may work with developing
training agreements, individualized instructional materials, and activities
that are directly or generally related to the purpose of improvement of the
Career Pathway. The PLE Coordinator is also involved in completing reports
for the Kansas State Department of Education.
|
||
|
|
Facilities/Layouts/Equipment for
Business Education
|
||
|
|
The
decisions business educators make on the room layout, equipment, and
ergonomics of a classroom will affect the learning environments of students.
Because of the increased amount of new technologies and changing curriculum,
the room must be useful, practical, adaptable, and easily modified for new
technologies.
I.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FACILITY PLANNING:
❖
Investigate new trends in business
education
❖
Visit business classrooms at other
area schools. Make a list of pros and cons
❖
School enrollment, projected
enrollment, and program requirements should be a consideration for each
school
❖
Facility should meet ADA
requirements
➢
Door openings must be 32 inches or
greater
➢
Aisles must be 36 inches or
greater
➢
Any level change greater than 1/2
inch must be ramped
➢
Carpet should be low pile over a
firm pad
➢
Seating spaces with tables or work
stations for wheelchairs must have a knee space of at least 27 inches high,
30 inches wide and 19 inches deep
➢
The top of the workstation or
table must be between 28 inches and 34 inches above finished floor
❖
State and local fire codes should
be followed
❖
A standard lecture room should
allow 30 square feet per student
❖
A computer room should allow at
least 40 square feet per student
❖
When designing or remodeling an
instructional area, each design should be modified for the teacher's style of
teaching
II. CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT
CONSIDERATIONS
Computers
and other technologies are used by students as an integral element in a
variety of classes including accounting, personal finance, office systems,
keyboarding, computer applications and others. In many classrooms, tables and
desks must accommodate both computers and workspace. Technology is an
essential teaching tool requiring special teacher demonstration tables and equipment.
Electrical wiring is an important factor to be considered.
III. APPROPRIATE NUMBER OF
COMPUTERS
While no rigid rules govern the number of computers in a
classroom, the following factors should be considered:
●
Different types of classes using
the room and the number of students typically enrolled in those classes
●
Less than 20-25 computers in a
classroom allows a teacher to address individual student problems and
computer problems quickly and allows a teacher to keep a class together when
using large group instruction.
●
More than 25 computers in a
classroom mandates self-paced instruction using high-quality training
materials designed for that purpose
●
Fewer than 20 computers allows
more time for individual attention for slow learners.
●
A backup computer in case of
machine breakdown.
IV. APPROPRIATE NUMBER OF PRINTERS
The
number of printers in a classroom depends on the software used, number of
computers, types and speed of printers, and whether computers are networked
or stand-alone. The overriding consideration is the software used. When using
word processing, database, spreadsheet, accounting, and other general
business software, consider the following:
●
Printouts using word processing,
database management, and spreadsheet software usually do not overtax the
speed or memory capabilities of most dot matrix or laser printers
●
For networked computers, either
several dot matrix printers or one laser printer for every 20 computers is
usually adequate
●
For stand-alone computers, one dot
matrix printer for every 4-6 computers is usually adequate
V. NETWORKED COMPUTER
CONSIDERATIONS
VI. MODEMS, SCANNERS, AND PHONE
LINE CONSIDERATIONS
VII. STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS
●
Original copies of computer
software disks should be locked in a safe location. Software instruction manuals
should be stored in a location accessible by teachers. Backup copies of
software and file server data should be stored off premises.
●
Policies should be set concerning
the removal of student data disks from the classroom. Whenever feasible,
student data disks should be labeled and kept within the classroom to prevent
damage to disks and lost disks.
VIII. ELECTRICAL AND POWER
CONSIDERATIONS
IX. ERGONOMIC CLASSROOM DESIGN
Consider
the following factors when planning a computer classroom or lab:
❖
Use indirect lighting with
fixtures that bounce light off of ceiling or walls rather than normal
fluorescent fixtures with prismatic lens sheets or incandescent light
fixtures. Fluorescent fixtures fitted with parabolic louvers or mirror- like
material are useful to combat glare problems. A level of 300-500 lux is
recommended. Removing half of the fluorescent tubes in a room will sometimes
suffice
❖
Use curtains or shades on windows
to prevent beams of bright sunlight on desktops
❖
Desk or table height should be comfortable
for using the keyboard and for reading and handwriting. Chair heights should
be adjustable rather than desk height
❖
Desk/tables should have trays or
devices to hold cabling. Electrical
outlets built into tables can be helpful
❖
Keyboards should have an
adjustable tilt
❖
Seat height should adjust between
16 inches and 19 inches. Users should be able to bend their hips and knees
and sit with their feet flat on the floor. An ergonomic chair should have
easily adjusted seat height and back support while the user is seated on it
❖
For increased comfort, use chair
seats made of cold-cured foam rather than slab foam
❖
Footrests enable people with
shorter legs to rest feet flat while working
❖
Back support should adjust up,
down, forward an backward to provide lumbar support of the spine in the small
of the back
❖
The top of the monitor screen
should be slightly below eye level. Beware of placing devices between a CPU
and a monitor that raise the monitor too high and cause neck strain
❖
Clean screens weekly
❖
The monitor should be no more than
16 inches to 22 inches from the eye with 28 inches being the maximum distance
❖
Use document holders so that
textbooks are next to and at the same height as the screen. The monitor and
documents should be located an equal distance from the eye
❖
The monitor should adjust up,
down, forward, and backward
❖
Use white boards rather than
chalkboards to prevent dust from getting in CPUs, disk drives, and on
screens.
❖
Use commercial carpeting if
carpeting is used. Use static mats when needed
❖
Use heating and air conditioning
systems to keep the temperature between 40 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
X. SECURITY
●
Locate the computer rooms away
from outside doors
●
Install windows designed to
prevent break-ins
●
Put bolt locks on doors
●
Install an alarm system
●
Have a computer (lab) director in
the room(s) at all times
●
Virus protection software checks
all disks automatically including hard disk drives
XI. TYPES OF CLASSROOMS AND LABS
●
Computers are used in a variety of
settings--business technology and computer classrooms/labs, general use labs,
and multi-purpose rooms. .
●
Arrangements for Business/Computer
Teaching Classroom Lab
○
In rows with students facing the
front of the room
○
In pods of 4, 6, or 8 computers
with students facing each other
○
Around the periphery of a room
with students facing the wall
●
When computers are arranged in
rows facing the front of the room, a teacher can give a demonstration and all
students will be able to view it easily. If the teacher models a certain
operation and has students immediately try it, the traditional arrangement is
preferred over pods or having students face a wall
●
If ample desktop space is
provided, the traditional arrange allows classes that do not use computers or
use computer occasionally to make use of that classroom. This allows a
Personal Finance or Marketing class to use the classroom space as well.
●
A diagram showing a Business Lab
is shown on the next page with a listing of essential equipment identified.
|
||
|
Business
Lab
|
The layout of a computer lab can vary from traditional, to
pods, to arrangements around the outer walls. The difference between a
computer classroom and a computer lab is that (1) a lab is free to be used by
students any hour of the day or designated hours of the day and (2) a lab can
be reserved by teachers for certain hours of the day and weeks of the year. A
lab can also be reserved for an entire year for certain hours of the day and
be open to students at other hours.
The
main purpose of a computer lab is for students to work independently with few
or no teacher demonstrations of software and little assistance.
Consider
the following when setting up a computer lab:
❖
Computers students would must have
all the software loaded on them that any students would need.
❖
Tutorial programs need to be
stored on computers for referral by students
❖
Computer user interface should be
easy to learn and easy to use when making software selections
❖
Software defaults should be set so
student data is stored automatically on the appropriate disk drive--either
hard disk or student disk.
❖
Virus protection software is
installed on every machine
❖
Printer instructions are next to
each printer
❖
Room arrangement allows students
to work alone without many distractions from other students
❖
Full-time lab director/assistant
|
||
|
Lecture
Room
|
This
area would be used for lecture type classes such as: Business Law,
Introduction to Business, Economics and Business Math.
❖
Area should allow about 30 square
feet per station. Capacity of class size will vary depending on school. For
most medium size school districts 25 to 30 stations should be acceptable.
❖
Markerboard and bulletin boards
❖
Overhead screen and projector for
audio visual use
❖
Locked storage for books and
supplies
❖
Podium for teacher lecture
❖
Teacher work area--for desk,
chair, file cabinet
❖
Adequate electrical outlets
❖
Windows may adjoin lecture room
with computer room so one teacher could supervise both rooms
Refer
to the floor plan below to see an example of a lecture room:
|
||
|
Multipurpose
Computer Lab
|
This room would normally be used in a small school
district as the computer teaching lab, computer lab, and the lecture room.
❏
Each station should allow a
minimum of 30-40 square feet per station. This would allow ample room for a
keyboard, monitor and a printer. (There may be a limited number of
printers--design can be modified by instructor depending on the number of
printers at each site.)
❏
Computer workstations will vary
considerably by size and type, depending upon planned use, equipment and
location of peripherals. The typical size of a workstation should be 36
inches Wand 30 inches D. Workstations should include space for keyboard, CPU,
monitor, and a mouse. Printers are usually shared and located separate from
each workstation
❏
A teacher workstation including
desk, file cabinets, and maybe their own computer
❏
Mounted overhead screen with a
mobile computer, LCD, and overhead projector demonstration area
❏
May make a multimedia workstation
either using demonstration computer, teacher's computer or another computer.
Must have phone jack for modem. Other equipment used at this station may be a
CD-ROM drive and Sound Blaster
❏
Storage area could be built-in or
separate cabinets. General units could be a tall storage cabinet with
adjustable shelving and lockable doors, open shelving for books, file
cabinets, credenzas and an instructor wardrobe for coat and personal items.
Provide as much storage as possible; there is never too much storage space,
especially with expanding technology
❏
Liquid marker board instead of chalkboard--reduces
chalk dust in the computer room. Bulletin board for posting notices and other
information
❏
Cable and cord management system
should be hidden usually under the counter raceways at back of station.
Adequate circuitry to prevent power surges
❏
Carpet must be low-propensity for
static electricity
❏
Air conditioning is highly
recommended. Personal computers usually require a stable environment: dry,
cool, and dust free with no direct sunlight on the computers
❏
If networking is a possibility,
the file server should be housed near the teacher workstation
❏
Accessibility needs: Plan for
wheelchair access for each station whether it is the computer station or the
printer area, allow for wheelchair access under the counter
❏
Typical aisle width is 36 inches W.
Also, keep controls, outlets, switches and shelves within access reach
This
classroom would be used for everything in a small school district. The
computer teacher would use the room for demonstration of computer skills. The
students would use this room for their exercises after demonstration. And
other students or teachers would use this room as a lab throughout the school
day. The room may also be used for
lecture classes.
Refer to the floor plans below to see examples of
different multi-purpose computer lab:
|
||
|
Instructors’
Office/Complex
|
This
work area should include instructor offices for study, planning,
student-teacher conferences, grading, and storage area.
❏
The office should contain windows
to supervise adjoining computer lab or lecture room
❏
Should have adequate space for
teacher's desk and chair. Typically
allow 100-120 square feet, with 80 square feet as bare minimum. Also, allow
50 square feet per additional instructors if office is shared. May include
room for an instructor computer
❏
Allow room for student-teacher
conferences. Room for extra chairs
❏
Area for storing films, tapes and
other reference material (credenza, lateral files or storage shelving).
Storage units should be lockable for security purposes
❏
Telephone jack and cordless
telephone for computer help
❏
Tall storage unit with locking
doors. May be used as a locked coat closet
❏
Allow room for file server in a
networked environment
❏
Refer to the floor plan below for
an illustration of an instructor's office
|
||
|
Interactive
Television Room (ITV)
|
This area will be used for the instructional interaction
through the new technological advancements of fiber optics.
❏
The area of the room should allow
30-40 square feet per student. Each student station should include table,
chair, and microphone
❏
Area must also allow adequate room
for technological equipment. Equipment for an ITV room for a consortium of
five school districts might include eight televisions, two video cameras,
VCR, student desks, teacher workstation, and a fax machine
❏
Floor and walls should be
ergonomically designed to reduce and noise
Refer
to the floor plan to see an example of an ITV room:
|
||
|
Funding
Clarifications
|
Funding is currently awarded by KSDE for pre-approved
courses in approved Career Pathways.
Differential funding (also known as .5 funding) is to be used to
support program deployment. The spirit
with which funding is provided is to accommodate school districts for smaller
class sizes and higher cost of equipment as compared to a traditional
“academic” course. Funding was never intended
to be used as a sole-source for teacher salaries.
|
|
|
Integration of
Academic and Technical Education
|
|
Introduction
|
The
integration of academic and technical education as well as the horizontal and
vertical alignment of curriculum appear to be viable alternatives to our
current assembly line approach to education. Just what is meant by
integration? That depends on your perspective. It can mean the infusion of
more academic content into career/technical coursework or the infusion of
more hands-on and applied learning in academic disciplines. To counselors and
special education teachers it can mean the mainstreaming or transitioning of
special populations. The fourth perspective of integration is perhaps the
most traditional: achieving racial and gender equity.
Integration is not easily defined. One definition--the
design and delivery of educational programs in which curricular and
pedagogical components are aligned toward achieving generalized outcomes for
all students--requires further explanation.
"The design and delivery"--this indicates that
integration is a process-- a process to refonn education through enhanced
academics, enhanced relevance, and enhanced student engagement.
"Of educational programs"--the process of
integration should not be limited to only secondary academic and vocational
education but rather, be more encompassing of all educational endeavors.
"In which curricular and pedagogical
components"--integration requires a reality-based or applied curriculum
that is criterion- referenced. Assessment is based on achievement as well as
time. The integrated classroom reflects teaming, cooperative learning and
student-centered instruction.
"Are aligned"--horizontalalignment: teachers
jointly plan curriculum and schedule instructional delivery to connect,
clarify, and build upon interrelationships that exist across courses.
Vertical alignment: a coherent sequence of courses designed around agreed
upon exit outcomes. Instructional coordination takes place over time (rather
than, or in addition to, across courses), and is focused toward developing
higher-order thinking processes and skills.
"Toward achieving generalized outcomes"--the
outcomes are the essential knowledge and skills in the liberal and practical
arts; communication skills; creative thinking and problem-solving skills;
self-directed and teamwork skills; physical and emotional well-being;
lifelong learning skills; career and workplace skills.
"For all students"--there are several approaches
and intended goals of integration. These goals should reflect the needs of
the students served: preK-12, postsecondary, vocational-technical, college
prep, Tech Prep, special populations or gender and racial equity.
A high school curriculum of lower track academic classes
that present unrelated facts and low-level knowledge through drill and rote
instructional methods and of vocational classes that focus on low-level
skills and intellectual tasks that are poorly connected to today's workplace
shields young people from the realities of life and work. Students think they
are ready for the real world, only to discover they are not. A national
survey sponsored by the Committee on Economic Development found that high
school graduates were more than twice as likely as their new bosses to believe
they had job-related skills in mathematics, problem solving, and
understanding written and verbal instructions. Only 30 percent of employers
in the Assessment of American Education thought new workers were prepared,
compared to 70 percent of recent graduates. The employees received low marks
on workplace skills such as demonstrating the desire and capacity to learn,
comprehending written materials, and using math to solve complex problems.
An
education initiative addressing integration in Kansas is the "High
Schools That Work" concept, developed by the Southern Regional Education
Board or SREB.
To
SREB and its partner states, integration involves implementing nine key
practices that provide a framework for making the high schools work for
students with vocational majors. The practices call for academic and
vocational teachers to work together in challenging programs of study that
relate what young people learn in high school to what they will do after
graduation. The emphasis is on blending academic content from college
preparatory courses in grades 9-12 with CTE studies. The key practices create
an approach to learning that helps make complex academic concepts visible to
students by having them apply the concepts to actual problems, tasks, and
situations encountered in CTE studies.
One of the key practices is: "Encouraging CTE and
academic teachers to work together in preparing students for continued
learning."
|
|
Historical
Perspective
|
The
integration of CTE and academic education is not only becoming a widely accepted
educational reform, it is also a required component to receive funds
appropriated under Perkins legislation, particularly Tech Prep initiatives.
Several states became involved in the integration of
academics into vocational education during the 1980s. In 1983, the Ohio
Department of Education approved nine "deliberately unconventional"
pilot projects for the purpose of strengthening academics in vocational
education. Two conditions of these projects were: 1) that they be
occupationally specific in instructional content, and 2) the design includes
a non-laboratory instructional component. Early results revealed improved
test scores and increased student and teacher motivation. A junior food
service group revealed an average of 93 percent improvement. Teachers were
impressed by the enthusiasm and confidence of the vocational students
compared to the somewhat blase attitudes of students in the college prep
program.
Ohio
utilized several formats for delivering the courses. Program delivery
provided an average class size of 18 students. Instructional staff conducted
home visits to familiarize parents and students with the program's goals and
expectations prior to the students entering the program. Students took
several pretests to establish competency profiles. A computer-aided
instruction program was established to support students who needed growth in
the academic areas.
Academic
and vocational teachers were given three to five weeks during the summer or
two hours a day during the school year to develop learning activity guides.
They also developed teacher activity guides,job tasks sheets, and other
needed curriculum resources. The curriculum format was totally computerized.
Students were required to do more individual work outside class and asked to
take more responsibility for their learning.
The
results indicated that both staff and students were convinced of the merits
of the integration of academics and vocational instruction. Teachers said
that teaching was more meaningful. Students in the experimental groups scored
higher on achievement tests and technical performance tests than did students
in the control group. Motivation was also higher and absenteeism was lower.
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|
Benefits
of Integration
|
More
recently, the National Center for Research in Vocational Education evaluated
a number of efforts to integrate academic and career/technical education.
Their preliminary findings are:
❖
Basic skills and academic content
included in vocational courses increase as vocational teachers make the
academic foundations of various occupations more explicit and as they find
more vocational examples appropriate for integrated classes
❖
The rigor of vocational courses is
increased with the greater use of academic material and with applied academic
courses
❖
The teaching of academic subjects
often improves as teachers learn to use more applications and more
problem-oriented approaches
❖
The content of the curriculum is
upgraded. Watered-down academic courses are replaced with more rigorous
applied academic courses
❖
The coherence of the high school
curriculum is improved as vocational teachers, academic teachers, and
counselors work together to define coherent sequences of courses and
four-year programs of study that contain appropriate amounts of both academic
and vocational subjects
❖
The patterns of segregation of
vocational and academic teachers, and the suspicion of each other's teaching,
have been broken down as they work with each other on new curricula. This
helps them gain a better understanding of the strengths of each other's
approaches
❖
In a few cases, the segregation of
academic and vocational students has been reduced by developing courses and
programs in which the divisions between academic and vocational subjects are
eliminated
❖
Teachers, both vocational and
academic, begin to share a sense of excitement about teaching, particularly
as they find out how many ways they can improve their teaching through
collaboration. Students become more excited about learning as they see more
clearly the applications and future importance of school-based learning
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|
Starting
the Integration Process
|
As
integration efforts become more widespread we have the experience of early
innovators to draw upon. Before a school or district undertakes reform
through integration, these elements should be in place:
❏
The staff is clear on its mission
and philosophy
❏
The staff senses a real need for
the improvement and understands how the innovation relates to the goal of
better student learning
❏
There are effective communications
networks that provide for the free flow of ideas and information throughout
the staff, administration, board of education, and community
❏
The board of education, school
community, and community at large clearly understand the improvement plan and
how it relates to the school's mission
❏
The administration understands and
uses effective procedures for leadership and management
❏
There are research-based
problem-solving models that all staff members understand and can rely upon to
help them solve problems that will inevitably occur with any attempt at
change
❏
There is a clear and systematic
training and development model that guides staff in learning how to use an
innovation
❏
The administration has a system
for following up on training and ensuring effective classroom implementation
❏
There is systematic support and
assistance for staff members as they proceed with implementing an improvement
❏
There is widespread agreement on
what constitutes the essentials of good teaching and learning
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|
Models
of Integration
|
Various ways may be used to accomplish integration of
vocational and academic subjects. The delivery method chosen will depend on a
given school's unique characteristics and qualities, such as: students,
faculty, equipment, funding available, and location. A review of literature
reveals several models which are emerging to accomplish vocational and
academic integration. These may be summarized as follows:
1. Increased applications in
vocational courses and/or academic courses.
This
model takes several different formats. More academic content may be
incorporated into vocational courses. Academic competencies which are
relevant to the vocational subject being taught must be identified. This will
require active participation of business and industry personnel in the
education process. Academic competencies are then integrated in a realistic
and practical way so that students can see how the academic competencies are
relevant to the vocational content.
Vocational
content may be incorporated into academic courses. This plan often takes the form
of separate "applied academic" courses which use examples and
practical applications from the working world. Students are shown how
academic content is an integral part of day-to-day work on the job.
Academic
teachers may assist vocational teachers to enhance academic competencies in
vocational programs. This plan requires much cooperation between academic and
vocational teachers. The vocational teachers identify the academic skills
that are required. Academic teachers then assist in helping to plan ways of
integrating and teaching these academic skills. The academic teacher may
actually teach some of the units in the vocational course, or students may be
sent to academic teachers for instruction in selected topics.
2. Parallel instruction.
In
this approach, academic content is integrated into vocational courses and
academic courses are made more occupationally relevant. The courses are then
aligned. Vocational and academic teachers plan and coordinate their courses
and program so students enrolled in both courses are learning similar topics
at the same time in both academic and vocational courses. With this plan,
topics being taught simultaneously are reinforced in both the academic and
vocational courses.
3. Academy model--school within a
school.
When
the academy model is implemented, a core of teachers within a given school
work together and teach the same students for two or three years. For
instance, a vocational subject teacher, an English teacher, a mathematics
teacher, and a science teacher form the instructional staff of the academy.
Students in a class take all four subjects from these four teachers and stay
with these teachers for two or more years. Any additional subjects are taken
as usual with other teachers and students in the high school.
The
faculty of the academy work closely with each other in planning and
articulating course content. They get to know students on a personal basis
and support each other in identifying problems and ways of coping with them.
The academy faculty may also work closely with business and industry. These
personnel may be called on to arrange visits, to provide internships, to act
as guest speakers, or to become mentors for the students. The academy model
is especially helpful to students who may be potential dropouts, since it
helps the students identify with a group and gives special attention to the
students.
4. Other delivery models.
Other
delivery models include occupational clusters or majors, occupational high
schools and magnet schools, and senior-level projects.
A. Occupational clusters or majors
In
some schools the occupational cluster or major concept suggests replacing
traditional departments with career areas. Typical clusters might include
agriculture and natural resources, business and marketing, and public service
and health. Vocational and academic teachers are assigned to a career area,
or department, and the faculty plan courses and sequences which are aligned
with requirements for a career path. In other instances, teachers belong to
both their conventional academic or vocational department and to clusters or
career paths.
B. Occupational high schools and
magnet schools.
This
concept is most practical for large population centers. It has limited use in
small or rural areas. Occupational high schools provide many opportunities
for academic integration since faculty have common goals that facilitate
integration. The typical magnet school has very limited vocational offerings
and is perhaps less conducive to vocational and academic integration.
C. Senior-level projects.
Vocational
and academic faculty collaborate to design projects which include the
completion of activities and competencies from both vocational and academic
areas. The project requires students to work independently and to make decisions
that solve complex problems.
Regardless of the model used, successful integration
requires vocational teachers to give up old ideas of job-specific training.
Academic teachers need to abandon old teaching methods and conceptions of
what must be taught. For integration to be successful, teacher empowerment
and the elimination of bureaucratic constraints must take place.
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|
What
Integration Requires
|
Integration
requires new relationships between individual teachers and among groups of
teachers. New teacher-to-teacher relationships support integration in several
ways.
First,
teachers' roles and relationships with each other must change to develop
integrated curricula and teaching practices. No package of integrated
curricula or teaching techniques exist that are adequate from the point of
view of teachers. Teachers report the need to extensively revise existing
curricula and learn new teaching practices in order to accomplish the
integration goals. Teachers need to work in interdisciplinary teams to develop
these curricula and new practices. As an interim step, teachers must
collaborate to develop the classroom activities that make up an integrated
program.
Second,
even if an integrated curriculum existed, teachers report that they need to
interact with each other to develop the skills and knowledge base needed to
become expert at integration--neatly packaged materials are not a substitute
for learning through observations and interactions with their colleagues on
specific lesson plans. Teachers report that this type of interaction is
needed for several years, until they become familiar with the integrated
field. For example, a English teacher may need to interact frequently with
the Business Technology teacher until he or she masters a series of examples
and applications to be used in class and masters the teaching practices that
support those examples. Some teachers feel this interaction is needed on a
permanent basis.
Finally,
vocational programs and their teachers have been consistently undervalued in an
organization geared toward advanced educational certification as the sign of
success. Integration reform explicitly places a higher value than is
currently the norm on the talents of vocational teachers and the majority of
students they serve--those not immediately college-bound.
Some teachers report they learned to value each other by
mixing with and understanding the contributions made by each individual.
Teacher collaboration or other forms of increased interactions provide the
opportunity for increasing the value placed on all teachers and all students.
However, there are teachers who do not value collaboration and prefer the
status quo.
New
teacher-to-teacher interactions are fostered by introducing new staffing
patterns and altering the school structure. The changes include hiring new
teachers, teaming, providing joint non instructional periods, joint
instructional times, workshops, and new governance structures. To facilitate
team curriculum development, teachers should be provided with time together
outside of instructional periods. Schools should change their organization to
increase the input of teachers into curriculum decisions or to ensure that
teachers who had not interacted before are given the organizational structure
needed to allow interaction.
Without
exception, teaming and non instructional time are rated highly as practices
to support collaboration toward the building of a new curriculum. Teachers
agree that any serious effort to implement integration will have to be
supported by more paid non instructional time.
While
these practices aid curriculum revision. teachers also feel professionally
encouraged by their interactions. Many report that non instructional time
provides the means to overcome mid career burnout and isolation. Before these
practices were in place, teachers rarely discussed professional issues:
instead. hallway conversation and regular departmental meetings covered
routine issues of scheduling, cafeteria duty, and personal problems. With the
focus on school improvement, teachers involved in teaming report they use the
time to discuss professional issues such as the set of skills a student
should have upon graduation and the professional responsibilities of
teachers. These discussions lead to curricular and teaching style changes.
Academic teachers mention that they have learned how to
better motivate and work with vocational students from the vocational
teachers. This learning seems a by-product of teaming and thus depends on the
team's ability to collaborate.
Administrative
actions at the school level to support new relationships vary considerably
and are the source of much discontent among teachers and administrators.
Teaming
works best when (I) the team is consistent from year to year and (2) teachers
are given a consistent set of courses from year to year.
At
sites with frequent reassignments, teachers report frustration. Each year
begins with new partners and new courses--in essence, they were beginning all
over again. The result is weakened curriculum as teachers struggle to keep up
with the changes. If teams work well together, they should stay together and
improve on the work already accomplished.
Perhaps
the single most contentious administrative issue in developing new teacher
teams is whether the teams should be voluntary or assigned. Teachers are
concerned about colleagues' unwillingness to participate in integration. A
team member who is not interested in integration does not fully participate
in the collaborative efforts. Some teams never really collaborate because
disinterested teachers refuse to meet or exchange practices. Teachers
emphasize the need for voluntary assignment and a slower approach to change
in order to make converts of those who are non-supportive.
Summer workshops are productive when the whole team is
present, but at several sites, only the vocational teachers are brought
together.
Bringing
all groups together requires planning by the administration and funding for
teachers' salaries. Some schools do not finalize class schedules until the
end of August and therefore cannot hold a summer workshop.
Those
groups that have a strong focus for improving the curriculum produce the most
concrete results from workshops. At several sites, teachers are brought
together but do not understand the purpose of the workshop. They report much
time is wasted because of poor guidance from administrators about the goals
of integration and a lack of specific ideas on what to change.
The
practice of fostering teacher-to-teacher interaction by providing joint instructional
and non instructional time is made easier by advanced scheduling and
planning. This enables teachers to get together informally over the summer to
exchange materials prior to the beginning of the year. Such interaction is
especially important for those sites that do not provide summer workshops.
Some
administrators promise support but do not actually provide it. Some
administrators report that last-minute schedule changes or difficulties in
scheduling result in inconsistent or no joint time. In these situations,
teachers report that they fall back on the thirty- minutes preparation times
at the beginning and end ofthe day for joint consultations. Teachers begin to
make much less effort to improve curriculum or exchange ideas, interpreting
the lack of a joint non instructional period as a signal from the
administration that this activity is not important. Progress toward
integrated curricula falters in these schools. Small schools with many
vocational areas and few academic teachers may have difficulty in
manipulating the schedule to provide joint time.
A
related issue at many sites is how long a team would need non instructional
time to interact. Should it be a transitional or permanent practice? Teachers
Views are not uniform. Some think a year would be long enough to accomplish
the tasks; others thought a more permanent arrangement will be necessary,
especially for vocational areas undergoing rapid change.
Physical proximity is used to foster integration in some
sites, and is reported to be a highly satisfactory mechanism. It is a
low-cost intervention that administrators can use to begin to mix teachers.
Teachers report that once non instructional time and workshops diminished,
physical proximity provides the means to maintain daily contact with
colleagues who had previously not been readily accessible.
Some
teachers and administrators report discontent over collaboration practices.
Traditional rivalry between academic and vocational teachers sometimes flares
when one group is placed in a managerial position over the other. Old
traditions and loyalties to disciplines die hard. Some teachers report they
prefer the more traditional isolated and discipline-centered organization of
schools. However, other teachers embrace the collaborative practices and
report new respect for their colleagues as a result of these efforts.
An
analysis of case studies and a review of the literature point to many lessons
for those attempting to integrate academic and vocational education over the
next decade. These lessons are best viewed in general terms, as indicators of
the kind of policy environment that would be conducive to integration, rather
than as specific practice and policy recommendations.
Integration
can potentially apply to all types of schools serving all types of students.
Comprehensive schools, vocational schools, and mission schools have all
identified problems to which they think integration might be a solution.
Research shows that rather than being solely a vocational education reform,
integration can be considered by the full spectrum of school types.
Integration
efforts on the part of sites, districts, and states potentially constitute a
comprehensive reform of the American high school. While no single school has
yet to accomplish a full reform, and several probably never will, the
trajectories of several schools' changes might in fact produce such permanent
redirection. Certainly many administrators and teachers talk in these terms.
In
attempting to integrate their programs, schools, districts, and states change
many of the traditions of schooling. Integration entails major changes in
staff mix, staff expertise, staff interactions, textbooks and materials, the
structuring of the school day, funding allocations, counseling,
certification. The schools that set out to make comprehensive improvements
are those that understand--perhaps not initially, but very early in the
process--the interactions among all stakeholders. These sites planned
long-term efforts that resulted in substantial changes to the schools.
School
reform and integration cannot be accomplished quickly. Several schools have
planned and implemented integration over five- year periods and still have
not accomplished everything they wished to. Mandates to integrate do not
lessen the time needed.
Policymakers
at all levels must recognize the amount of time required in their planning
efforts. Efforts to rush integration or to evaluate its effects prior to its
full implementation might lead to poor results. They could also set up false
expectations on the part of teachers as to the level and duration of effort
required. Even seemingly simple steps, such as adopting applied curricula,
takes several years, while teachers learn the new materials and grow
comfortable with them.
Recognizing
that integration takes years to accomplish will allow the development of
realistic implementation plans.
As
schools integrate curricula and change other services, they begin to define
themselves differently from other schools or to increase the existing
differences. Vocational-technical schools can improve their curricular
offerings not by mimicking their academic counterparts, but their by
complementing weaker areas. their They traditional should not strengths move
toward with improvements standard lecture in but toward activity-based
teaching of such subject matter. When well- implemented, this change provides
an option for capable students who have been poorly served by the existing
academic curriculum.
Integration is also consistent with reformers' notions of
increased teacher professionalization and an emphasis on teamwork, both of
which have been shown to be key factors in schools' obtaining and maintaining
excellence. Some schools see integration as a goal and collaboration and
professionalization as the means to obtain it. Rather than emphasizing
professionalization or teaming per se, these schools use them as a means to
achieve curricula and teaching reform, providing the basis for teachers to
collaborate and grow professionally. Integration efforts are convergent with
efforts at teaming, teacher-led curriculum development, teacher-led
governance, and staff development. Integration suffers when these activities
were not fully supported by funds and staff development programs. An
underlying theme is the need for improved teaching skills and teacher
subject-area expertise. This is provided through different means, including
new hires and teaming to learn new skills.
Integration also connects directly to efforts to improve
the testing methods employed in the educational community. While schools are
unable to break away from some of the traditionally mandated tests, such as
the college entrance exams, they seek other means of assessment that
emphasize the totality of learning and the ability to apply theoretical
knowledge to the practical problems faced by adults. Several schools adopt
senior projects, group grading, and portfolio assessment.
Sites
achieve progress toward their integration goals when state and local
regulations align to support school change; progress is hindered when
regulations pull in different directions.
Common traditions or regulations indicated as barriers are
seat-time regulations, graduation requirements, nonacceptance of applied
courses, hiring practices, college admission requirements, union seniority
rules. certification processes, and teacher evaluation rules.
Ambitious integration attempts
require state and local officials to act together to develop accountability
mechanisms that encourage improved curricular offerings while ensuring
minimal competencies. A systematic review of governance at the state and
local level is beginning to occur.
Integration
flourishes when the state and sites support it with a full array of
capacity-building investments. Most important is full support--including funding--for
staff development and collaboration. Local support for this is not enough;
state-level support is required.
Integration is teacher-driven. It requires teachers, both
academic and vocational, to change the manner in which they teach, to master new
curricula, to collaborate to develop curricula, and to learn from each other.
These new behaviors have to be learned. The capacity of the teacher workforce
to support integration has to be built over several years. When support for
these types of activities is missing or diminishes, teachers' efforts
likewise decline.
Other
types of investments are also required. Existing curriculum is inadequate, as
is the testing regime that continues to support outdated practices. Yet sites
do not have the wherewithal to develop new curriculum packages and tests.
Historically, this development activity has been performed by consortia of
states in cooperation with publishing and testing firms.
Without
sustained investments in curriculum development, sites will be forced to
"reinvent" integration. While local variation might be a necessary
condition of school reform, some strong base of existing curriculum would
promote integration. Supported with strong inservicing, teachers would be
better able to learn the new materials and supplement them as appropriate,
instead of developing materials from scratch each year. Networks of teachers
to aid the inservicing would also be beneficial.
Curriculum development,test development, and staff
development are the key functions needing funding. Statewide or regional
consortia might offer the opportunity to develop the capacity needed without
any single district being overburdened. The state and federal governments
potentially have strong roles to play in this regard.
Not
to be overlooked are the schools and teachers that have already attempted
integration, have developed curricula, and now stand as experts. Accessing
these schools and individuals in training formats or through documentation of
materials would be the first step in reducing the cost associated with
integration. as well as putting existing expertise to good use. Again, state
and federal governments and teachers colleges potentially have roles to play
in developing networks and documenting existing programs.
Inducements,
the temporary transfer of funds to promote certain actions, playa role in
promoting integration. Several sites undertook integration because district
or state grants were offered as inducements. Without these inducements, these
efforts would probably not have been undertaken. But as the grant monies ran
out, integration efforts slowed. In addition, while innovation flourishes at
the sites that are offered inducements, very little effort is made to
document the changes made to assist other schools in following suit.
Conversely, sites undertaking integration could be
allotted grants to ensure that curriculum documentation occurs. This
documentation could then be shared with other sites through consortia or
networks.
The
rethinking of school transition practices as part of integration is aided by
the inclusion of new groups in the decision making: businesses and parents.
New perspectives fuel attempts to remove the current set of diplomas and
tracks that define separate education programs. Vocational-technical schools
need to implement new programs to better serve traditionally academic
students. They need to woo students they have traditionally not served by
offering an integrated curriculum that would suit the students' interests and
still meet college entrance requirements.
Currently, however, integration is impeded by the very
traditions it attempts to change: lower-grade-Ievelschools. As integration
becomes more widespread, higher-grade-Ievel schools may begin to demand more
preparation of students by lower grade levels. If this is an effect of
integration, it might be its most powerful influence on changing the
traditions of education.
Finally,
teachers and administrators complain that integration cannot be fully
accomplished within the current seven or eight one-hour periods of the school
day. Some even say the school year should be expanded to allow teachers to
cover both theory and practice. The traditional ways in which time has been
allotted are changing in several schools that are experimenting with block scheduling.
The length of the school year remains unchanged, but some schools are
beginning to challenge this tradition as well, if only in discussions.
If
integration proceeds, it might enable fundamental changes in the current
structure of educational programs and the conventions that support that
structure. If integration lives up to its promise of both academic rigor and
richer preparation for work, it could promote the abolishment of tracking and
potentially enable equity within the educational system. This has yet to be
accomplished but administrators and teachers see the potential for
integration to bring about many changes in the traditions of education.
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|
|
Contextual Learning:
Applied Curricula and Teaching Methodology
|
|
Introduction
|
Contextual
learning is an emerging concept that incorporates much of the most recent
research from cognitive science (the science of the mind). The contextual
approach recognizes that learning is a complex and multifaceted process that
goes far beyond drill-oriented, stimulus/ response methodologies.
According
to contextual learning theory, learning occurs when students (learners)
process new information or knowledge in such a way that it makes sense to
them in their frame of reference (their own inner world of memory,
experience, and response). This approach to learning and teaching assumes
that the mind naturally seeks meaning in context--that is, in the environment
where the person is located--and that it does so through searching for
relationships that make sense and appear useful.
Building upon this understanding, contextual learning
theory focuses on the multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether
that is a classroom, a laboratory, a worksite, or a wheat field. It
encourages educators to choose and/or design learning environments that
incorporate as many different forms of experience as possible--social,
cultural, physical, and psychological--in working toward the desired learning
outcomes.
In such an environment, students discover meaningful
relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the
context of the real world, and concepts are internalized through the process
of discovering, reinforcing, and interrelating these relationships.
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|
Learning
in Context
|
Curricula
and instruction based on this approach will be structured to encourage many
different forms of learning in context, such as:
●
Relating:
learning in the context of life experiences
●
Transferring:
learning in the context of existing knowledge using and building upon what a
student already knows
●
Applying:
learning in the context of how the knowledge/information can be used
●
Experiencing:
learning in the context of exploration, discovery, and invention
●
Cooperating:
learning in the context of sharing, responding, and communicating with other
learners.
Such curricula have the potential to create an environment
in which all students are more empowered in their learning experiences. The
different contexts in which they learn will broaden their abilities to make
connections, enjoy discovery, and use knowledge--abilities that they will
practice throughout their life and career.
|
|
Defragmenting
Education
|
Throughout
our century the American educational system has continued to break down and
divide disciplines and concepts to make education less concrete and more
theoretical. The assumption was that
bybreakingdownthebodyofmaterialintoseparatesubjectsand
endeavors,studentscouldfocusonthelearningtaskitself.Thisway, theories that
had been learned first could be applied to specific situations encountered at
a later time.
Contextual learning offers more than a tool for
defragmenting the American educational system. It also provides a more
effective approach to teaching the majority of students because it is
specifically geared to the way these students learn.
In recent years, cognitive science and studies of the
relationships between structured learning and the work environment have given
us a better basis to evaluate the effectiveness of various methods of
teaching and learning. Many educators, however, tend to interpret the
learning environment according to their own experience as students. In other
words, they teach the way they have been taught--usually through traditional,
abstract, lecture methods.
But while the traditional classroom model is a valid one,
it is not necessarily the most effective strategy for teaching the majority
of students. To increase their effectiveness in the classroom, many educators
may need to change some of their basic assumptions about how people learn.
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|
The
Context of the Workplace
|
In
1991, the United States Department of Labor initiated the Secretary's
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) to analyze the future skills
that would be needed by the American workforce. The commission then prepared
a report for America 2000, an initiative set up by the Bush administration to
develop world-class standards for educational performance. The SCANS report
reinforces the need for a more effective structure of learning that responds
to the changing needs of the new workforce--and contextually based teaching
methods are especially effective in making this kind of connection.
The
SCANS report duly notes that traditional basic competencies such as reading,
writing, and arithmetic have been and continue to be a key part of the total
skills required of the workforce. However, members of the commission strongly
emphasize two other sets of competencies as critical for the current and
future workforce:
●
personal
qualities: the ability to relate to others in
and out of the classroom as well as developing individual responsibility and
self-esteem; and
●
thinking
skills: the ability to think and
problem-solve an entire system rather than working with isolated tasks and
problems.
These two sets of abilities are now seen not only as
skills that should be learned in combination with the three Rs, but also as
the basis for teaching strategies that all teachers should consider using to
enhance the learning capacity of their students.
The
process of learning interpersonal skills, for instance, requires students to
work on teams, teach others, lead, negotiate, and work well with people from
culturally diverse backgrounds. But these techniques, in addition to helping
students learn to get along with others, also help them learn content more
effectively. The math students working together on a project not only learn
interpersonal skills; they also learn more math.
Similarly, students acquire thinking skills best through a
learning environment that requires them to be creative, make decisions, solve
problems, and know how to learn and reason. And once again, this kind of
environment will also facilitate the learning of the course content.
The
adoption of the SCANS report as a structure for learning can help students
transfer knowledge from school to work and understand the context and meaning
in which the curriculum is taught.
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|
Applied
Academics
|
Applied academics can be defined as the presentation of
subject matter in a way that integrates a particular academic discipline
(such as mathematics, science, or English) with personal workforce
applications (hands-on laboratories dealing with practical equipment and
devices).
In applied academics, a careful
balance of "head skill" and "hand skill" learning is
developed. The mathematics and science principles that are taught, for
example, are related to and explained in terms of the operation of real
devices and applications in the everyday work world.
Changes
in the development of the workforce require employees who have multiple
skills and abilities. Similarly, the changes in the educational system must
reflect the fact that students cannot continue to learn in an isolated
fashion. If educational reform reshapes the way students learn, the outcome
could enhance the abilities of the future workforce.
Since 1985, more than 23,000 classroom doors in all fifty
states have been opened to more than 650,000 students enrolled in applied-
academic classes. But these are not the watered-down, low-level courses many
people have come to associate with the word applied. These are not
"dummy" classes. Today's applied-academics courses and curricula
are simply academic courses and curricula with contextual teaching and
learning methods built in; they team respectable academic content with a new
system of instruction. The result? "It's not easy, it's just easy to
learn."
Applied academic courses emphasize the acquisition of
academic principles and concepts through classroom and laboratory activities
that connect abstract knowledge to workplace applications. The most widely
used applied academic courses include Principles of Technology (PT), Applied
Mathematics, Applied Communications, and Applications in Biology and
Chemistry.
Many
schools use the applied academic curriculum developed by the Center for
Research in Occupational Research (CORD). As stated in CORD publications,
these courses are intended to serve as alternative core curricula in math,
science, and English. Furthermore, the need for alternative curricula is
based on the fact that the math, science, and English courses needed for high
school graduation tend to meet the needs of students interested in pursuing a
baccalaureate degree. Applied academic courses are intended to meet the needs
of all students, particularly those interested in pursuing occupations that
do not require a baccalaureate degree.
The use of applied academic curricula varies a great deal
from school to school. An alternative to using the applied academics courses
as a package is to use individual modules to teach certain skills that
students may need. In Kansas, many Business teachers use modules in Applied
Communications and Applied Mathematics as supplements for their business
classes.
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|
Applied
Communications
|
The
Applied Communication curriculum is a comprehensive set of learning materials
(video and text) which teaches communication, language arts, and English
skills as they apply in the workplace.
This
curriculum helps secondary and postsecondary students focus on improving and
transferring the following communication skills to their occupations and
personal lives:
The
Applied Communication curriculum consists of 17 instructional modules which
can be used singly, in any order, or all 17 modules can be used as the basis
for a year-long course.
Cooperative programs may use it as a unit of study in the
generally related curriculum or in the student's directly related curriculum
which reflects the student's individual training plan.
Some secondary schools are utilizing Applied Communication
modules for the "at risk" students and, with the appropriate
approvals, this course could be offered as the fourth required credit in
English.
The
Applied Communication Modules:
1.
Communicating in the Workplace
2.
Gathering and Using Information in
the Workplace
3.
Using Problem Solving Strategies
4.
Starting a New Job
5.
Communicating with Co-Workers
6.
Participating in Groups
7.
Following and Giving Directions
8.
Communicating with Supervisors
9.
Presenting Your Point of View
10. Communicating
with Clients and Customers
11. Making
and Responding to Request
12. Communicating
to Solve Interpersonal Conflicts
13. Evaluating
Performance
14. Upgrading,
Retraining, and Changing Jobs
15. Improving
the Quality of Communication
16. Technical
Writing
17. Electronic
Communication
The
instructional modules of Applied Communication include a series of activities
ten, 40 to 50 minute lessons incorporating a variety of learning activities
for six vocational areas:
In
each module, Lesson 1 through 7 provide instruction and practice in
communication skills as they are generally used in the workplace. Lessons 8
through 10 feature activities designed to develop and refine communication
skills in the six vocational education areas. A minimum of three lessons is
suggested for each module.
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|
Applied
Mathematics
|
Applied
Mathematics as developed by the Center for Occupational Research and
Development (CORD), features classroom-tested, competency-based,
occupationally related, modular materials that help students develop and
refine their skills. Field test results show that Applied Mathematics
materials:
●
Conform to current NCTM standards
●
Reduce mathematics anxiety
●
Stress applications in real world
job situations
●
Emphasize more than a "pencil
and paper" level of learning
●
Allow for a broad range of
student's entry-level capabilities
●
Reflect equity standards in both
the text and video
The
36 units of Applied Mathematics were developed and reviewed by a group of
mathematics and vocational educators, with input and reactions from business
and industry representatives. The contents and pedagogical development of the
units conform with the standards published by the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics.
Scope
and Sequence of Applied Mathematics
APPLIED MATHEMATICS I
A.
Getting to Know Your Calculator
B.
Naming Numbers in Different Ways
C.
Finding Answers with Your
Calculator
1.
Learning Problem-Solving
Techniques
2.
Estimating Answers
3.
Measuring in English and Metric
Units
4.
Using Graphs, Charts, and Tables
5.
Dealing with Data
6.
Working with Lines and Angles
7.
Working with Shapes in Two
Dimensions
8.
Working with Shapes in Three
Dimensions
9.
Using Ratios and Proportions
10. Working
with Scale Drawing
11. Using
Signed Numbers and Vectors
12. Using
Scientific Notation
13. Precision,
Accuracy, and Tolerance
14. Solving
Problems with Powers and Roots
15. Using
Formulas to Solve Problems
APPLIED MATHEMATICS II
1.
Solving Problems That Involve
Linear Equations
2.
Graphing Data
3.
Solving Problems That Involve
Nonlinear Equations
4.
Working with Statistics
5.
Working with Probabilities
6.
Using Right-triangle Relationships
7.
Using Trigonometric Functions
8.
Factoring
9.
Patterns and Functions
10. Quadratics
11. Systems
of Equations
12. Inequalities
13. Geometry
in the Workplace 1
14. Geometry
in the Workplace 2
15. Solving
Problems with Computer Spreadsheets
16. Solving
Problems with Computer Graphics
17. Quality
Assurance and Process Control 1
18. Quality
Assurance and Process Control 2
Each unit contains:
●
a video that relates the unit
topic to the world of work
●
a careful development of the
mathematical principles with embedded examples and study activities
●
three hands-on laboratory
activities that require measurement, calculations, and interpretation
of results
●
forty or so word problems that sharpen problem-solving
skills and require the use of scientific calculators
|
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|
Applied
Technology Methodology
|
The
curriculum that attempts to place learning in the context of life experiences
needs first to call the student's attention to everyday sights, events, and
conditions and then to link these everyday situations to new information to
be absorbed or a problem to be solved. This is precisely the approach that
applied academics courses take.
Applied academics courses often encourage students to
reflect on what they know about a subject before they begin a sequence of
study. In an Applied Communication module on communicating with clients and
customers, for example, students examine a series of photographs that show
two people, a parent and a day-care worker, interacting. Students are asked
to identify the feelings and attitudes of each person toward the other and to
reflect on the importance of nonverbal behaviors in the resolution of the
exchange. This exercise helps the students become aware of their own prior
knowledge of nonverbal communication and thus prepares them to read a text
discussion of nonverbal behaviors and to carry out an observation exercise.
Applying
Contextual learning of the
relating and transferring varieties asks students to call upon past and
present experiences that have occurred or are occurring in an environment
with which they are familiar. By contrast, applying concepts and information
in a useful context often projects students into an imagined future (a
possible career) and/or into an unfamiliar location (a workplace). In the
applied-academics courses, applications are often based on occupational
activities.
Young
people today generally lack access to the workplace; unlike members of
previous generations, they do not see the modern-day counterpart to the
blacksmith at the forge or the farmers in the field. Essentially ghettoized
in the inner city or outer suburbia, many students have a greater knowledge
of how to become a rock star or a model than of how to become an executive
secretary or a small business owner. If they are to get a realistic sense of
connection between schoolwork and real-life jobs, therefore, the occupational
context must be brought to them. This happens most commonly through text,
video, labs, and activities, although in many schools, these contextual
learning experiences will be followed up with firsthand experiences such as
plant tours, mentoring arrangements, and internships.
Experiencing
Experiencing--learning
in the context of exploration, discovery, and invention--is the heart of the
applied-academics curricula. However motivated or tuned-in students may become
as a result of other instructional strategies such as video, narrative, or
text-based activities, these remain relatively passive forms of contextual
learning. And learning appears to "take" far more quickly when
students are able to manipulate equipment and materials and to do other forms
of active research.
In
applied-academics courses, the laboratories are often based on actual
workplace tasks. The point here is not to train students for specific jobs,
but to allow them to experience activities that have a direct relationship to
real-life work. However, many of the activities and skills selected for labs
are cross-disciplinary, that is, they are used in a broad spectrum of
occupations.
Experiential
learning takes events and concepts out of the realm of abstract and brings
them into the realm of concrete exploration. As students begin to develop a
repertoire of such experiences, they develop both skills and confidence in
their ability to handle (literally and figuratively) the challenges of the
world outside of the school.
Learning
in the context of sharing, responding, and communicating with other
learners--or cooperating--is a primary instructional strategy in
applied-academics courses. The experience of cooperating not only helps the
majority of students learn the material; it is also consistent with the
occupational focus of applied academics.
Research interviews with employers
reveal that employees who can communicate effectively, who share information
freely, and who can work comfortably in a team setting are highly valued in
the workplace. We have ample reason, therefore, to encourage students to
develop these cooperative skills while they are still in the classroom.
The
laboratory,one of the primary instructional methods in applied academics, is
essentially cooperative in its nature. Typically, students work with partners
to do the laboratory exercises; in some cases, they work in groups of three
or four. Completing the lab successfully requires delegation, observation,
suggestion, and discussion. In many labs, the quality of the data collected
by the team as a whole is dependent on the performance of each individual
member of the team.
|
|
|
Tech Prep
|
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|
Introduction
|
The
Kansas State Department of Education (KSDE) is committed to making Tech Prep
a major part of education reform. Kansas Tech Prep represents an educational
initiative that integrates college preparatory coursework with a rigorous
technical education concentration. It is a planned sequence of courses, both
academic and technical, that begins at 9th grade and is articulated with a
postsecondary experience leading to an associate of applied science degree or
a two-year postsecondary certificate. Because Tech Prep prepares students for
a lifetime of learning, it also provides preparation for advanced education.
Tech Prep prepares students with the skills and competencies necessary to
meet employers' performance standards not only for entry-level jobs, but also
for career advancement. Tech Prep builds meaningful partnerships among
educators and employers, academic and technical faculties, and secondary
schools and postsecondary institutions.
To
ensure the success of Tech Prep, the Kansas State Department of Education
(KSDE) requires the development of committed 50/50 partnerships between:
●
Academic
and Technical Educators - to facilitate interdisciplinary
cooperation and stimulate academic and technical education curriculum
integration.
●
Secondary
and Postsecondary Educators - to enhance opportunities for
students to move smoothly from one level of education to another (e.g., high
school to community college or community college to university) without
duplication of effort; and to share resources that increase students' overall
educational experience.
●
Employers
and Educators - to clearly communicate and
establish performance standards for technical and academic areas to ensure
that Tech Prep graduates are ready to contribute productively to the economy.
Typically,
students who participate in Tech Prep are:
●
25th to 75th percentile in
academic ability
●
comfortable using math and science
to solve problems
●
capable performers in technical
and scientific courses
●
aspiring to complete postsecondary
education
●
attracted to careers in growth
occupations
Knowing exactly where to start
planning a Tech Prep initiative can be difficult. Many Tech Prep planners
shared that they had so much to do in the first few months that they were
overwhelmed. Activities to be initiated during the first 2-3 months,
according to Tech Prep planners, include:
●
creating a local Tech Prep
philosophy and planning approach
●
selecting key groups to
participate in the planning phases
●
gaining top leader support
●
educating project staff about Tech
Prep
●
creating an organizational
planning structure
●
developing planning teams
●
setting realistic timelines
Tech
Prep is distinctive from vocational education in that it not only prepares
people to get their first job, but also prepares them for an entire career.
In addition, it prepares students for further education training; that is,
they "learn to learn." This requires an early, solid foundation in
academic skills--taught in a way that makes it easier for most students to
learn, but not watered down or oversimplified.
Because
of this academic emphasis, the Tech Prep curriculum clearly cannot be a
"patch-up"job on existing vocational or technical programs. The
entire curriculum structure must change in order first to build, and then to
build upon--the strong foundation of applied academics.
Tech
Prep also differs from secondary programs commonly known as college-prep
programs. In the literal sense, of course, Tech Prep is college prep; it
prepares a student to earn an associate's degree at a community or technical
college. But what is generally referred to as college prep is a high school
program of studies that prepares students to pursue a baccalaureate degree,
or higher, at a four-year college or university. Tech Prep differs from this
form of college prep in three ways:
●
Tech Prep requires the same
standards of academic accomplishment as college prep, but it teaches content
through courses based on contextual learning methods (applied academics)
●
Tech Prep creates higher interest
levels in most students by attaching a career focus to the program of study
●
Tech Prep prepares students to be
competent according to work (employer) standards as well as academic (school)
standards.
A successful Tech Prep program
includes the following outcomes:
●
Students receive a strong academic
foundation in math, science, and communication skills
●
Students are given the opportunity
to explore and identify a career interest
●
Students are helped to prepare for
a specific career goal
●
Students are connected with a
technical/career specialization related to employment specifications
●
Students come to understand the
workplace and employers' expectations for workers
●
Students are given the opportunity
and ability to pursue further education and training, including (if desired)
the baccalaureate degree
●
Students have the chance to
participate in educational electives such as the arts, sports, and
organizational leadership
●
Students retain the option of
changing their academic or career pursuits
●
Students receive sufficient
preparation to qualify for employment after high school graduation if they do
not enroll immediately in a community college
Meeting each stated objectives is especially important to
the design of a Tech Prep curriculum because Tech Prep is essentially an
outcome- based program. Student success is measured not by grades but by
competencies; that is, the student must demonstrate the ability to perform
certain measurable tasks.
The
specifications or expected outcomes for a Tech Prep curriculum are the
competencies required for job performance and career growth within a
student's chosen field. For example, a set of competencies for an office
worker might include the ability to type; the ability to use word processing,
database, and spreadsheet software on office computer systems; the ability to
file information efficiently and retrieve it quickly; and the ability to
transcribe business correspondence.
Ideally
these job competencies should be determined by the standards for employment
set by employers and by labor leaders for a given job or group of jobs. And a
significant amount of activity at state and federal levels is currently
underway to delineate the standards for certain groups of applications.
|
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|
Phases
of the Tech Prep Curriculum
|
Although an articulated program
like Tech Prep will eventually need to be divided into a secondary component,
a postsecondary component, and perhaps a worksite component, the total
curriculum should ideally be designed and organized as a single sequence,
without regard for where or by whom the course work will be taught. When the
design is complete, it will become appropriate to sort out which elements
will be taught by high schools, which will be taught by community col- leges,
and which will be taught by employers.
What would a typical Tech Prep
curriculum structure look like? The following model divides the curriculum
into three major two-year phases. Needs work...
|
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|
Career
Clusters
|
An important aspect of the Tech
Prep curriculum is that it is designed around the concept of "core
skills"--basic skills that are applicable to any of a group of
specialities. This foundational concept expresses itself, in career clusters,
groups of occupations that share the need for certain basic competencies.
The career-cluster approach to
curriculum design is based on the idea that a variety of different
occupations/jobs require similar basic skills. It is also based on the belief
that certain basic skills and knowledge are essential for all students,
regardless of the profession to which they aspire. It makes sense, therefore,
for a student to begin by learning these basic, common skills; move on to
acquire the basic skills necessary for a given group of jobs; then learn the
specific applications for a specific job.
The
essential basic skills and technical core together comprise approximately 80
percent of the overall Tech Prep curriculum. Specific specialty courses,
usually taken during the last phase of the Tech Prep program, are the only
ones that are unique to a technical or vocational program option.
The
career-cluster approach provides school systems with the opportunity to
involve larger numbers of students in technical classes and to build a
stronger and broader base for the specialty area. This broad base also makes
it possible for individuals to change specialties in the future as job
opportunities and/or requirements change.
The
cluster concept can also link Tech Prep options with traditional
college-preparatory options. In other words, some of the basic core material
in the clusters can apply to individuals pursuing a baccalaureate degree
directly from high school as well as those who aspire to an associate degree
or who plan to go directly to employment at the end of high school.
The
business/information systems cluster includes such occupations as secretarial
services, data processing, business management, accounting, and other areas
related to the management of enterprises and the processing of information.
The advanced math skills required in this area differ somewhat from other
clusters, particularly because they involve working with information analysis
and processing. An understanding of group behavior, team processes, and
organizational dynamics focusing on human behavior is also required.
|
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|
Articulation
|
An important part of the process
of reviewing and revising curriculum for Tech Prep is articulation. The Task
Force on Occupational Program Articulation (1989) defined articulation as a
"planned process linking two or more educational systems to help
students make a smooth transition from one level or program to another
without experiencing delays or duplication of learning."
When cuniculum is articulated,
secondary and postsecondary curriculum are joined to make the total sequence
of courses a functional whole. To accomplish this, all secondary and
postsecondary levels must be reviewed with appropriate changes made at each
level.
The
reasons for articulating cuniculum are directly related to the benefits
resulting from the articulation effort. These benefits include:
●
increased relevance of learning
activities
●
improved quality of graduates
●
improved program outcomes
●
improved faculty cooperation
●
reduced program costs
●
reduced duplication of programs
Articulation
can include both horizontal and vertical approaches. Horizontal articulation
refers to transferring credit from one program to another within an
institution or from one institution to another at the same level. Within an
institution, technical and academic courses need to be horizontally
articulated.
Vertical
articulation refers to transferring credit from a lower-level institution to
a higher-level institution.
In
identifying specific curriculum to be articulated, several questions should
be answered.
●
Will the articulated curricula be
a single program (eg., CAD) or several programs comprising a career cluster
area (eg., Business Technology)?
●
Will the articulated curricula be
an advanced-placement model, an advanced-curriculum program, or a Tech Prep
Associate Degree model?
●
How will the articulated cunicula
incorporate applied academics?
●
Will the articulated curricula be
a 2+2, 4+2, 2+2+2, or some variation?
●
Will an elementary or junior high
school component be added?
Successful articulation results
when key individuals are involved in designing and developing the articulated
programs. Individuals to involve in articulating technical and academic
programs within an institution as well as programs between institutions are:
●
secondary and postsecondary
academic and technical faculty
●
secondary and postsecondary
guidance counselors
●
secondary and postsecondary
administrators
Efforts
to articulate technical and academic programs within a school district and
between partnering schools should begin early in the planning of the Tech
Prep initiative. As soon as commitment to Tech Prep is gained from key
individuals, the focus should turn to designing and developing an articulated
curriculum. As Tech Prep initiatives are expanded in future years to include
additional cluster areas, the articulation process will be an ongoing effort
for schools and their Tech Prep planners.
On
the next two pages are two articulation models related to Business and
Marketing education.
Business Cluster Design
Marketing / p.110
Accounting / p. 111
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|
Curriculum
Development
|
A Tech Prep curriculum is unique
in that it is intended to prepare students for a lifetime of learning as well
as with the skills and competencies necessary to meet employers' performance
standards for entry-level jobs and career advancement. A framework for the
Tech Prep curriculum should consider:
●
philosophy and goals of Tech Prep
●
students served
●
instructional and support staff
●
curricular arrangements
●
employment settings
●
content coverage
●
technical education
●
academic education
●
applied learning activities
Academic and technical educators must be jointly involved
in each other's curriculum development efforts to create a fully integrated
Tech Prep approach. As the curriculum is developed, it is important to build
quality into the finish product--the graduate. To ensure that a quality
student is the outcome of Tech Prep, a curriculum must be designed to be
fully-articulated, student-oriented, explicit in its outcomes, and matched to
employer needs. Various ways of determining content to include in Tech Prep curriculum
can be considered. Four ways to do this are:
●
evaluate the existing curriculum
and continue successful practices
●
modify or customize the existing
curriculum for Tech Prep
●
develop new curriculum
●
adapt a new curriculum (eg.,
Principles of Technology)
A
list of relevant questions to consider in determining content for Tech Prep
follow.
●
What technical skills are needed
to make students successful in a career?
●
What math, science, communication,
and social science content is needed to make students successful in a career?
●
What basic content coverage, if
any, is required for certification?
●
What dollars are available for
equipment, resources, and supplies?
●
What employability level is
expected of graduates of Tech Prep?
●
Which experiences may be best
obtained in the work setting?
●
For which technical areas will
graduates be prepared?
|
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|
Guidance
and Counseling
|
Guidance
and counseling is an integral part of a comprehensive Tech Prep initiative.
Similar to other components of Tech Prep, the guidance and counseling
component must be planned with input from representatives of participating
institutions and surrounding community. The success of Tech Prep is
determined largely by whether collaborative planning approaches involving
counselors, faculty, students, parents, and other key groups are effective.
Through collaboration, counselors can play an integral part in designing Tech
Prep initiatives that provide information and resources required by students
to be successful. It is essential for counselors to be involved in planning
from the beginning.
In
order for counselors to help students plan a successful Tech Prep program of
study, they need to clearly understand Tech Prep course sequences and help
students understand the meaning of work in terms of its importance to their
lives and the satisfaction it can bring them. Counselors can also help
students understand that choosing an occupation is usually not a
once-in-a-lifetime decision. Tech Prep is developed around career clusters,
thereby opening up career options rather than limiting them.
|
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|
Promotion
of Tech Prep
|
Effective
marketing plans are as critical to the success of Tech Prep initiatives as
are relevant, rigorous instructional programs. Tech Prep can be thought of as
a new product or service. The Tech Prep concept, its benefits, and values
must be marketed to administrators, faculty, counselors, local businesses and
industries, students, parents, local government agencies, and the public.
Tech Prep is a means of changing education to meet the needs of the changing
workplace and society. Therefore, marketing of Tech Prep cannot be a one-time
or hit-or-miss activity. It should contain specific marketing plans for both
internal (i.e., within the educational system) and external (i.e., outside
the education system) audiences.
|
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|
Business/Industry
Collaboration
|
Tech Prep recognizes the
importance of developing education and private-sector partnerships to ensure
work-relevant learning experiences for students. Skills demanded by today's
businesses and industries are not limited to advanced technical skills but
include strong academic and interpersonal skills. Business, industry, and
labor representatives should be involved in defining needed competencies and
skill levels and establishing performance standards for Tech Prep students
who will be their future employees. To better prepare students for the
workplace and for life, education and the private- sector must collaborate
and coordinate educational and work experiences.
Business, industry, and labor representatives can be
involved with partnering educational institutions in a variety of ways.
Business and industry representatives involved in Kansas Tech Prep
initiatives suggest ways they could assist with Tech Prep. They are:
●
providing students with work-based
knowledge and skills
●
providing tours of their
facilities
●
hosting open houses
●
making classroom presentations
●
providing work experience
opportunities for instructors and counselors
●
providing work-based learning
experiences and internships for students
●
participating as team teachers
●
teaching classes in their settings
●
providing or loaning equipment
●
speaking at career days or other
special events
●
assisting in determining
performance standards
●
agreeing to priority hiring for
graduates
●
sponsoring scholarships for
students
●
guaranteeing placement of
qualified graduates
●
providing industry training for
instructors and counselors
Tech prep initiatives are most successful when work
experiences are provided for students. The type of work experience selected
depends on various internal and external factors. Things to consider are:
●
grade level of students who will
participate
●
specific program areas of
concentration
●
school or college location
●
number of available
business/industry sites
●
types of businesses and industries
in the district
●
level of participation by
business/industry sites
●
availability and cost of
transportation
There
are several types of work experiences to consider when planning a Tech Prep
initiative.
Internships operate as either paid or unpaid
experiences. Internship experiences may be more appropriate and meaningful
for students when offered during the summer months. Summer internships can
provide more intensive work experiences, which allow students to feel and act
like regular employees. Other short-term or part-time internships provide a
good overview of business and industry and a sense of work life.
Apprenticeships
are prescribed learning experiences in which an individual, called an
apprentice, learns a specific trade through several years of on-the-job
training and related instruction (U.S. Department of Labor, 1984). On-the-job
training covers all aspects and parts of a particular occupation. Related
instruction can take place in a classroom or through home-study courses. The
instruction covers the techniques of the trade and also the theory behind the
techniques. Classes are taught by experienced craftworkers and other skilled
persons and can be scheduled during the day or evening.
Cooperative Education Programs
are also considered a form of work-based learning. Cooperative education
programs combine classroom activities with actual work experiences.
Generally, students are enrolled in school for a half day and are employed
the other half day.
Shadowing
provides students with opportunities to observe many workers in a variety of
different jobs in business and industry settings. Shadowing experiences may
be most suitable for students who are beginning the Tech Prep initiative. The
length of shadowing experiences may vary from a one-time, one-hour experience
to full-day experiences over several months. Students are usually not paid
for shadowing experiences.
Mentoring
pairs a student with an adult trained worker, preferably from the student's
chosen career field. This experience clearly shows students the practical,
work-related application of what they are learning in the classroom.
Mentoring assists students in making a smooth transition from school to the
world of work. Also, mentoring can assist students in deciding whether the
career path they've selected is suitable for them.
Mentoring
programs can be designed to meet the needs of particular students, schools,
colleges, and businesses as well as to address particular program goals.
Mentoring relationships may be continued throughout students' participation
in and completion of Tech Prep. Ultimately, mentoring programs should benefit
everyone, including students, teachers, other school personnel, and business,
industry, and labor representatives.
|
|
|
School-To-Work
|
|
|
"School-to-work"is
defined as a seamless system of education that combines secondary and
postsecondary, work based and school based learning, as well as vocational
and academic education. It contains career awareness in the elementary
grades, career exploration in the middle school, career preparation and
direction in grades 9-10, career training in grades 11-12, and career
enhancement in postsecondary education. School to work includes a paid or
unpaid work site component in the high school and postsecondary sections that
help students connect academic and career training.
Since
the 1980's,various initiatives - including the integration of basic skills,
the development of applied academic courses, implementation of Tech Prep, and
the High Schools that Work initiatives, and now the School-to-Work
initiatives have caused many educators, both academic and vocational, to
rethink their mission.
Rather
than pulling in different directions, each of these efforts is built on the
premise that we need to raise the level of expectations of students,
especially those at the secondary level. To do this, we must:
●
do a better job of career
assessment,
●
put these students through a more
rigorous course of study,
●
provide academic courses where
what students study makes sense to them,
●
integrate and reinforce academic
skills throughout the vocational curriculum, and
●
build ways to articulate what high
school students learn to be more applied at the postsecondary level
By
adding the work-site learning component, and by aligning the curriculum
according to the standards of what business and industry think is important
for successful employment in a given area, we can see that all of these areas
overlap and work together. It is within this partnership that schools, and
especially school counselors, will view their role as one that assists
students into the workplace rather than out the door of high school.
High School, AVTS, and
postsecondary school relationships
For
the School to Work system to operate, the joint efforts of high schools, area
vocational and technical schools, and collegiate institutions (particularly
community colleges) are required. It will require a new way of thinking; it
is up to business and industry to tell educators what the needs are in terms
of the students being able to be gainfully employed. This will require a
considerable amount of "give and take" and a call for eliminating
many so called "traditional" ways of thinking.
There
is no single model on how this system can be developed. The state of Kansas is
in the planning stages of developing models that can be applied to the
diverse economic and educational needs in the state. Even though there is no
definite system endorsed by the state, there are several components of the
School to Work system that are an integral part of any successful
application.
Roles and Responsibilities of
Industry
The process of developing any School to Work system must
be industry-driven. What does that mean?
The
learning experiences must begin with the business and industry list of skills
to be performed and competencies to be mastered. The success of a particular
program is determined, after rigorous secondary learning, primarily by the
quality of teaching on thejob and the student's willingness to take
responsibility for learning.
The
Cornell Youth and Work program has suggested the following on how employers
design and manage students workers:
Identify skills and the
competencies needed. Managers name skills that enable
students to learn how to do the work in a department. Students make progress
in both technical and social skills. .
Sequence tasks. New
tasks are introduced to students in a logical order so that the skills and
knowledge required for each lay the foundation for mastering new skills and
knowledge required for the new tasks. .
Assign coaches.
Managers may coach students in performing work tasks, but greater efficiency
and breadth are achieved by delegating coaching responsibilities to several
employees within a department. Adults who coach students should be sensitive
to and interested in youth and they should understand the program. Coaches
must grasp the underlying principles, and they should be competent workers. .
Coordinate educational experiences across departments.
As students rotate through different departments within a firm, they should
receive a comprehensive picture for their occupational area and gain skills
that they will need as workers in the future. Coordinating educational
experiences also requires
monitoring what the student is learning to make sure that both procedures and
principles continue to provide challenges
●
Maintain
communication with parents and school contacts. To
keep people informed about the student's experiences, employers identify
contact people within the firm for parents and school staff to call if they
have questions and concerns, and they should address concerns as they arise.
●
Maintain
records of the student's experiences. Records
document what the student is learning and helped keep track of the student's
rotation through the departments.
Many
educators have discussed the role of mentors in the School-to- Work
experience. It is important to be reminded that whether or not students are
participating in a paid work experience it should be something more that the
typical "shadowing" experience. Hamilton and Hamilton also
addressed the issue of "coaching" and defined the task as teaching
students about their work tasks and responsibilities. They also present a
list of how employers coach students to perform work tasks. This list includes:
●
Demonstrate
task performance by doing the task while the student observes.
While performing the task, the coach points out important features and checks
the students understanding by asking questions and encouraging the students
to ask questions.
●
Explain
how to perform a task correctly. Explanation may accompany
demonstration or be provided separately. It establishes performance criteria,
points out what problems are likely to occur, and identifies possible
problem-solving strategies.
●
Explain
why a task is performed a certain way. A coach
must explain why the task is performed according to certain specifications,
provide information about the business management or scientific principles
underlying the procedure, and explain how the task relates to other tasks.
●
Monitor
and critique the student's attempts to do the task.
While monitoring the student's performance, the coach gives immediate and
clear feedback. Although monitoring and feedback are continual, the interval
between instances increases as the student gains competence, and the coach
encourages the student to monitor his or her own performance and to seek help
when difficulties arise.
●
Model
problem solving by thinking aloud and demonstrating problem-solving
techniques. Modeling includes explaining what
questions the student can ask when problems arise. identifying the kinds and
sources of information the student might need to find the solution, and
pointing out important information or cues that the coach is relying on to
guide problem solving.
In
working with business and industry, it should be made clear that a student
program will directly benefit them. This should motivate companies to invest
more actively and enthusiastically in the skills of their employees.
Responsibilities of the Local
Public Schools:
For
a School-to-Work system to be effective, the school must take an active part
in both supporting the student and providing connected curriculum
opportunities to enhance the work-based learning. Schools must be committed
to aligning curriculum to complete the process of connection from school to
work.
Responsibilities
of the secondary schools then include:
●
Develop and maintain career
development curricula (career awareness and exploration) that provide
students with occupational experiences and preparation for entry into the
School-to-Work system
●
Develop or utilize/modify
curriculum to support industry and competency-based program standards
●
Integrate applied academic courses
and cooperative learning to support work based learning
●
Complete, with students and
parents, a student participation training agreement, (including school and
work site outcomes) that includes a structured schedule of work/training to
be provided to students
●
Provide required supervision and
liability indemnification, where appropriate, for student learners .
●
Provide student academic and
on-the-job (work-based learning) progress reports and ensure that students
maintain good standing in both school and at the work site as a requirement
for continuation of the program .
●
Provide and train staff
coordinators, counselors, and teachers for the system .
●
Allow teachers, coordinators, and
counselors to participate in staff development and training to further
facilitate the system
Responsibilities of Postsecondary
institutions:
●
Participate in the development of
a plan which specifies program standards, record keeping requirements,
information sharing, school and employer staff training, technical assistance
availability, and monitoring responsibilities
●
Assist in the development of
competency-based program curricula including identification of occupational
core competencies
●
Assist in the design of competency
based student assessment materials and procedures
●
Assist in the design of the
training program for participating employers
●
Promote associate degree access to
high school students, and development of articulation agreements that
recognize and credential student work-based learning experiences
In order to provide connections
between school and work activities, it is necessary for each school to assign
a School-to-Work Coordinator for each relevant program area. The coordinator
may be a vocational teacher. It is recommended that no more than 40 students
be assigned to any coordinator, and additional release time from teaching
should be observed in addition to a planning period, in order to fully
facilitate the coordination of activities.
Specific
guidelines for the coordinator should include:
●
the coordinator should be
school-based, with opportunities for the working coordinator with all should
educational settings
●
the coordinator should be
certified in an instructional area appropriate for the students they are
assigned,
●
the coordinator should establish a
schedule of regular site visits to work sites of student workers,
●
the coordinator should develop
work plans for students which reflect agreement of business/industry needs,
●
the coordinator should assign
grades for student performance in conjunction with recommendations from the
worksite coach/mentor
●
the coordinator should maintain
all appropriate records.
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Workplace Skills
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|
Introduction
|
This
is an interesting paradox. Kansas high school graduates are the best
educated, meeting the highest requirements in the history of the state, and
the worst off. They are in this condition not necessarily because Kansas
schools have failed, but because the skills, the knowledges, and the
behaviors required by our society, have outpaced the ability of our schools
to provide them.
While
the media, political and business leaders, and even many educators have
generated much rhetoric about the failure of American schools, a search of
the literature shows data exist to substantiate almost any claim made about
American schools. When compared to all students in this country in the past,
today's students are actually performing quite well. However, if we compare
American students today to international standards or compare their education
to the skills needed in a technological, information-based society, the
students do not fare very well.
What
and how students learn in school in the United States bear little resemblance
to what they do when they leave school--especially in the workplace. The
American curriculum is very theoretical in nature and has become more so in
recent years--driven by standardized tests.
The
recent effort to upgrade education is actually the third major school reform
movement of the century in this country. The first movement, in the early
1900s,was intended to help immigrants. The second wave of school reform
occurred after World War II. Americans wanted their children to have a
standard of living and quality of life better than their own. The ticket to
the American dream was a college diploma. Schools did not abandon their
commitment to citizenship, but the focus shifted radically to preparing
students for higher education.
Nearly
50 years later, in the third wave of reform, we are still using readiness for
college as the benchmark for making most educational decisions. In a sobering
analysis of today's workplace, we find that the skills, knowledges, and
behaviors needed for entry-level employment are different and greater from
those needed for higher education. Not surprisingly, the group pushing
hardest for school reform today is the business community. After all,
employers were the first to recognize that our high school graduates lacked
the skills to function in a workplace transformed by technology and global
competition. Business leaders now hope that initiatives such as Tech Prep and
Applied Academics will help students acquire the skills they will need- for
employment.
Employers
are requiring workers to do more than ever before. Decision making has
filtered down through the ranks. Workers must now manage their workstations,
schedule their time, strive for quality, solve problems, and learn new
technologies. What we now teach in schools and how we organize and deliver
instruction do little to prepare students to assume these responsibilities.
In 1950, 60 percent of all jobs in the nation were unskilled. By 1990, this
figure had dwindled to 35 percent, and it is projected to drop to 15 percent
by the year 2000. The influx of technology and global competition have
contributed to the demise of opportunities for unskilled labor. By the 21st
century, the unskilled person will be structurally unemployable in the United
States.
Unskilled
labor is no longer a commodity in any sector of our economy.
Ironically,
neither the 1950 graduate nor most 1993 graduates received much instruction
in statistics, logic, probability, measurement systems, technical writing,
technical reading, applied physics, or information systems as part of the
curriculum.
Another
major transformation has been taking place. The information industry is the
fastest growing sector of the American economy. Consider the impact of PCs
and fax machines on businesses in the past decade; neither had been produced
yet in 1980. By the close of this decade, it is predicted that 44 percent of
workers will be in the information industry. New technology will continue to
change the information sector in the 1990s. Voiceprint, which translates the
spoken word to print instantaneously, will be in regular use. Spell- check
systems are increasing from 50,000 to 500,000 words. Grammar and punctuation
checking systems and language translation systems will be common. By the end
of the 1990s, we will be able to speak into a machine and in an instant have
hard copy with all spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors corrected. A
voice-driven typewriter is already available in America. These advances will
virtually eliminate unskilled labor in the information processing sector and
make obsolete or greatly change such jobs as clerk typist, file clerk, and
word processing operator.
Workplace skills identified by the
Kansas Performance Standards and Measures workgroup have been generalized
into nine broad categories:
●
Managing Resources: Time,
Materials, Money, Human, Facility
●
Participating as a team member
●
Computer Literacy
●
Decision-Making/Problem-Solving
●
Interpreting/Communicating
information
●
Learning strategies
●
Exhibiting work ethics
●
Creative Thinking
●
Self-management
These
skills are critical to getting hired and staying employed. These skills are,
therefore, applicable to all students. Although specialized skills increase a
person's marketability, they are rarely prerequisites for entry-level
positions. Workplace skills, on the other hand, are required for all
employment situations. They are the kind of skills that are highly
transferable to a variety of work and life situations and can increase a
person's occupational adaptability.
The teaching and assessment of workplace skills is
certainly not a new priority for Business educators. Skills in communication,
time management, problem-solving, self-management, and creative thinking are
inherently a part of any instructional unit. However, because of recent
federal and state mandates related to student employability and program
accountability, a more explicit approach in teaching and assessing workplace
skills is required. With this requirement comes the challenge to educators to
reorganize their instructional strategies and information management systems
so they can assist students in making successful school and work transitions
focusing on teaching students how to present a positive image, exhibit
positive work attitudes, practice good work habits, practice ethical
behavior, communicate effectively, accept responsibility, and cooperate with
others. Additional instruction will prepare students in analyzing, planning,
researching, and deciding why and how they will work; help students develop
competencies needed to get job~; and develop competencies needed to retain
employment and advance through personal initiative.
Preparing students for work requires attention to a
variety of skills-- academic skills, vocational skills, and workplace skills.
Students need opportunities to develop their skills before they seek
employment.
The
Kansas Competency-Based Curriculum Center has worked closely with the Kansas
State Board of Education's Technical
Education
team in identifying enabling objectives for the nine areas of workplace
skills. In 1992 it published competency indexes for both secondary and
postsecondary institutions. The next step was to develop instructional
support materials for these skills. Whereas some schools have opted to teach
workplace skills in isolation of other instruction endeavors, current
education theory supports a more integrated approach. Indeed, teaching one
workplace skill at a time is nearly an impossibility simply because in
"real life" this skill depends upon a number of other related
skills. For example, mastery of skills in teamwork require related skills in
communications, problem- solving, decision-making,and creative thinking.
This
same premise is apparent when trying to develop instructional support
material. Many student exercises, work scenarios, problem- solving
situations, and role playing activities encompass multiple (or simultaneous)
skill instruction. Most activities are not easily classified under one distinct
skill but lend themselves to a variety of subject areas, teaching situations,
and student groupings.
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Assessing
Workplace Skills
|
Assessment
of workplace skills is an ongoing process to obtain insight into the widest
possible range of factors relating to the students' school and work
transitions, namely, their attitudes, aptitudes, abilities, achievements,
skills, values, self-concepts, and so forth. Effective assessment requires a
great deal of interaction between teachers, counselors, students, and parents.
It must involve informal as well as formal strategies.
Since student self-appraisal is an appropriate way to
assess attainment of workplace skills, the traditional mind-set of"
grading" may not be applicable to many activities presented in this document.
Indeed, the very nature of these workplace skills do not lend themselves
readily to points accumulation or letter grades. Neither is assessment always
"objective", since the instructor must evaluate criteria and
performance that may be highly personalized for each student. The student's
physical needs, social needs, emotional needs, educational needs, personal
interests, school interests, extracurricular activities (particularly VSO's),
and occupational interests can all influence the acquisition and demonstration
of appropriate workplace skills.
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|
Teaching
Workplace
Skills
|
Teachers
and guidance counselors can help students in their school-to- work transition
by showing them the connection between hard work in school and success in the
labor market and by providing them with instruction, information, and
experience that will prepare them for work. With this in mind, the following
recommendations are made:
●
Motivate students to apply
themselves to their studies
●
Use cooperative learning
strategies in the classroom
●
Provide students with
opportunities for vocational and relevant work experience
●
Provide information and
instruction about employer priorities and practices
●
Incorporate instruction
employability development concepts in all curriculum instruction
●
Demand good deportment in the
classroom
●
Express work values through
classroom instruction
●
Encourage self-esteem in students,
expecting the best from them
●
Promote and display a positive
attitude in the classroom
The classroom takes the lead in making student involvement
with workplace skill instruction happen. In the cooperative learning
classroom, the teacher plays several important roles:
Broker
In
the role of the "go-between",teachers need to establish or find the
right conditions that permit a student (or groups of students) to be involved
most efficiently. Teachers need to monitor the process and at times intervene
to resolve any problem.
Catalyst
The role here may be to ask the right question or the
right person at the right time, or make the right suggestion. Teachers
initiate discussions and precipitate the involvement of others.
Facilitator
Teachers
need to "make things happen". For example, they must keep
activities on target and on schedule.
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|
Instructional
Activities
|
A
variety of instructional activities may be used to teach and assess
instruction of workplace skills:
1.
BUILDING
PROJECTS: Develops students' cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
skills. Use modem tools, materials processes, and component parts.
2.
GAMING:
Develops students' interest in learning about technology. Use
question-answer, game board and computer games to motivate students in
modeling applications of technology in the real world.
3.
RESEARCHING:
Develops students' understanding of new tools, materials,
processes, and socio cultural problems. Use investigatory tasks that involve
technical and socio cultural endeavors.
4.
VISUALIZATION:
Develops students' understanding of the abstract aspects
of technology; visualization also provides a broad view of Business
technology in general. Use audiovisual aides such as films, slides, movies,
etc.
5.
PRESENTATION
AND DEMONSTRATION: Develops students' vocabulary to
include new technological terms and helps students express their knowledge of
the subject. Use class presentations as a form of student information
sharing.
6.
ROLE
PLAYING: Develops students' understanding
of people and their use of technology around the world in business/industry
and everyday life. Use classroom settings to illustrate different roles
people assume in the world. The inclusion of role models who are in
occupations that are nontraditional to their sex (including historical role
models) will help to break down stereotypical notions about certain careers.
Active role models such as mentors, presenters, and consultants can help the
teacher provide encouragement and support to students, particularly to those
who shy away from certain activities because of stereotypical notions or lack
of prior experience.
7.
WRITING:
Develops students' thinking about Business technology in
the past, present and future. Use assigned technical reports, scenarios, and
forecasts.
8.
DISCUSSION:
Develops students' awareness of new technologies and technological issues.
Use formal and informal conversations;hold subject matter discussions to
reveal students' knowledge of technology.
9.
READING:
Develops students' ability to comprehend technological subject matter. Use
books, magazines, newspapers, and related technological literature to create
a technology bookshelf and bulletin board.
10. EXPERIMENTATION AND PROBLEM
SOLVING: Develops students' ability to
understand the process which is critical to developing new technology. Use
laboratory activities which involve discovery/inquiry tasks.
11. YOUTH LEADERSHIP ACTIVITIES:
Develop students' leadership abilities to participate in today's
technological society. Develop communication, decision making, problem
solving, and management skills, the ability to motivate others, and to
understand human relationships. Use appropriate leadership development
activities, sponsored by DECA, FBLA, or BPA.
12. SPECIAL PROJECTS:
Community-based service projects, homework, research reports, visitations,
and field trips can supplement classroom instruction.
Finally,
the instructor should keep in mind that how well a person succeeds in ajob is
determined largely by two factors: an ability to get along with others and an
ability to follow directions.
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|
|
Competency-Based Education
|
|||
|
Introduction
|
A
competency-based instruction system is a specialized and systematic method of
organizing skill-specific instruction. Central to a competency-based
technique of instruction is the requirement that the majority of learning
activities be centered on and keyed to the development of pre-stated competencies.
The core of a competency- based instruction system is that all activity in
the classroom and laboratory is focused on developing prestated competencies
by using structured learning activities. A certain amount of management on
the part of the instructor is required to successfully implement and
supervise competency-based instruction.
A competency-based instruction system has certain
components which must be developed, structured, and managed effectively. They
are:
●
Identified competencies
●
Organized learning activities
●
The organization of learning
resources
●
Testing and evaluation of
competency attainment
●
Competency recordkeeping
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|
The
Organization of Learning
|
Effective use of learning resources is characteristic of a
competency- based instruction program. These learning resources can include:
One
purpose of organizing the use of learning resources is to assist all students
in the time-efficient development of marketable skills. Some instructors may
also need to organize carefully to compensate for limited accessibility to
these resources in a particular program. An example of the effective use of
learning resources is discussed below.
All available learning resources
in the business education program of one secondary school are organized to
simulate the required competencies of the various job titles which may be
found in a business office. Learning resources have been structured within
the classroom so that learning activities resemble a mail-order sales
business.
A
financial department accommodates several students. Desks, lights,
calculators, and materials are carefully arranged within this area. The
accounts receivable and accounts payable competencies, which are associated
with basic bookkeeping, are developed at these workstations.
An
"outside world" station simulates all of the activity in the sales
organization. This work station is occupied by a student whose primary
function is to simulate written sales orders, payments, and correspondence
coming into the business. Many advanced competencies associated with business
correspondence, records management, and office systems are developed at this
station by using a variety of selected learning resources.
Many
other workstations exist in this sophisticated training model. Among them are
office production workstations in which competencies associated with various
job titles can be developed, such as office secretary, clerk-typist,
receptionist, records manager, and office manager.
Students are even given the opportunity to explore
advanced business- related competencies in other work stations. This is
designed to develop an appreciation for the free enterprise system and a
knowledge of the factors associated with the decision-making process and such
corporate positions as president, vice-president, and secretary-treasurer.
All available learning resources are used in this classroom. They are
organized so well that when the "outside world" station sends a
letter to the company with a check representing payment on an account a
complex chain of events is set in motion.
One student is responsible for opening and routing the
mail. The payment is then carried to the accounting office where the payment
is credited to the customer's account on the bookkeeping machine.
A letter thanking the customer for payment is generated by
the clerical work force and a new catalog of materials is forwarded to the
customer. Various financial reports and sales figures are prepared at these
work stations and sent to the corporate officers.
Numerous
other functions could be included in this model. For example, another chain
of events is triggered if an order comes into the office from the
"outside world" station. Each learning activity in this simulated
sales office is aimed at developing specific competencies. Learning resources
are managed to maximize the students' opportunities to become more competent
in the skills related to the jobs for which they are preparing.
Central to a competency-based instruction system is the
feature that both student and instructor know at all times precisely what is
expected of the student in each learning situation. A detailed list of
competencies, complete with statements regarding the desired levels of skill
proficiency, is introduced at the very beginning of the student's program.
|
|||
|
Implementing
a Competency Based Instructional System
|
When planning your curriculum, it is important to remember
that the cost of implementing a competency-based instruction system can be
categorized into two general areas: dollar cost and time. Great investments
of time, persistence, interest, and dedication are what it takes to organize,
implement, and maintain a competency-based instruction system. You should
realize that while the dollar cost can vary significantly,there is a minimum
investment of time that must be devoted to the development and implementation
of a competency- based instruction system. The process of writing, revising,
and validating competencies, and selecting and designing appropriate learning
activities could take years. Because competency-based instruction is a vital and
dynamic method, it is almost continuously in a state of revision and must be
extremely flexible to changes in technology and student achievement.
You can, therefore, expect to invest a considerable amount
of time performing the following activities when creating a competency-based
instruction system:
●
Identifying sets of knowledge and
skills which must be developed
●
Writing competency statements
●
Organizing learning activities
●
Selecting and developing
instructional materials
●
Testing and evaluation
●
Validating and revising competency
statements .
●
Conducting liaison activities
related to curriculum within the employment community
|
|||
|
Managing
Learning
|
The instructor's role in a
competency-based instruction system is to manage all purposeful learning
activity so that each student is in an appropriate phase of the skills
acquisition cycle at all times. The instructor must by necessity be aware of
the relative progress of each student within the sequence of learning
activities. The instructor must also know exactly where each student is in
the sequence of activities and what skill they are attempting to develop.
I. Identification of the skill to
be learned. The introductory part of each
lesson is the presentation or acquaintance phase of instruction for the skill
or knowledge to be acquired. In this initial stage, the purpose of the lesson
and its nature must be conveyed to the student, and the actual specification
of the competency which is to be attained should be stated. Once the student
knows what it is that the lesson is designed to accomplish, the second phase
can be initiated.
2. Familiarization with the skill.
The student can read about the skill from a book or other
printed material, view a slide-tape series or other audiovisual material, the
instructor can demonstrate the skill and give a brief lecture, or combine any
of these learning activities to encourage the development of the skill that
has been identified in phase one. Demonstrations of the refined motions and
techniques associated with a skill are often appropriate at this point in the
cycle. The purpose of the second phase of instruction in the competency-based
system is to give the student a mental image of what is to be accomplished as
preparation for the next step in the skill learning process.
3. Development of the skill. The
third step is the actual process of developing the skill or knowledge which
has been selected. This is where hands-on instruction begins. The instructor,
in most cases, should be aware of the precise moment at which a student
enters this stage of competency learning. It is important that the student
who is attempting to learn critical skills be supervised by the instructor.
The student's first practice attempts should be guided. A workbook exercise
or question-and-answer sheet can be used if theory knowledge, rather than a
hands-on skill, is being developed for competency attainment.
The
development of skill proficiency is a very important phase of the learning
progression. The student should have every opportunity to compare the results
of attempts at demonstrating skill attainment with a good example. The
instructor should provide as much positive feedback and encouragement to the
students as possible. The student should have the freedom to advance through
attempts at mastery until the skill to be developed becomes second nature.
4. Testing of skill attainment. The
fourth stage in competency development is a demonstration that the specified
competency level has been achieved as shown by the student's performance on a
skill test. This is the first time during the learning sequence that the
student actually attempts to attain the competency ratings that are listed
for a particular unit of instruction. This attempt should be scheduled,
managed, and observed by the instructor.
5. Evaluation of the result.
The results of the learner's attempt to meet a specified competency should be
carefully evaluated against the prestated performance goal in the fifth phase
of the competency learning cycle. Student performance should be compared with
the standard given in the competency statement. The results of the attempt at
skill mastery should then be evaluated by the instructor and explained to the
student. If required, suggestions for further practice, or methods for
improving performance, should be pointed out to the student. The student
either will be instructed to repeat the cycle of learning activities so that
additional competency can be built or will be credited with successful skill
attainment and directed to move on to the next step of competency development
within the curriculum.
The instructor should be aware of the lesson or learning
activity each student is working on. Managing student progress through the
five phases of the development cycle is possible in a competency-based instruction
system because of the specially sequenced course outline and the careful
selection of organized learning activities for each step. These activities
can include Learning Activities Packages, Programmed Learning Sheets and work
station activities.
|
|||
|
Developing
and Customizing Competency Profiles
|
A competency profile is a
recordkeeping form/device to document and communicate student competencies in
a specific occupational area. The profile contains a listing of units of
instruction (or DUTY AREAS), competency statements (or TASK STATEMENTS) under
each unit, a rating scale, a section for evaluating work attitudes and
workplace skills, and student identification and completion information.
Use for Profiles:
●
Serves as a detailed reporting system
which can supplement or replace the current grading system
●
Provides parents with a detailed
record of student achievement
●
Provides the student and the
instructor with a consistent view of where the student stands in achieving
the competencies of a course or program serving as an instrument for
accountability
●
Assists in job placement for
students in cooperative education programs. Also serves as a tool for
employers in the supervision of vocational students
●
Provides prospective employers of
program graduates detailed information regarding the abilities and
competencies the student possesses
●
Provides a program description
which can assist in student course/program selection and as a recruitment
tool
●
Serves as a public relations
instrument to business and industry and the community
Steps for Building Profile:
●
Obtain copies of existing profiles
and competency listings and/ or complete a job analysis
●
Examine current curriculum --
units of instruction and expected student outcomes -- and make comparisons to
profiles collected or results from the job analysis
●
Determine units of instruction
(DUTY AREAS) that will appear on the competency profile
●
Develop competency statements
(TASK STATEMENTS) for each of the Duty Areas identified -- competency
statements contain a verb (action that is observable and measurable) and a
noun
●
Determine if attitudes/personal
characteristics and/or workplace skills will appear as tasks within various
Duty Areas or in separate sections on the profile
●
Determine a rating scale to be used
(a rating scale should have from three to five levels)
●
Determine the numbering or
identification system for Units (DUTY AREAS) and Competencies (TASKS)
●
Determine other information to be
included on the profile (Le., student's name and/or social security no.,
instructor's name, school, program, school year, graduation/completion date,
etc.)
●
Design the method or system for
collecting the data
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|
Writing
Task Statements
|
Definition:
The precise, observable, and
measurable outcome which describes in terms of action what the learner will
be required to do as evidence that he/she has achieved the intended outcome
|
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|
General
Requirements
|
●
All task statements contain an
action verb and a noun
●
Verb qualifiers may be added to
task statements when needed to clarify expected training outcome
●
Task statements are short and
concise (unnecessary words to be avoided)
●
Task statements will require 5 to
20 hours for learners to complete (a complete unit of work with a definite
beginning and ending resulting in a product, service, or decision)
●
Each duty area should contain a
minimum of 2 but no more than 9-12 task statements
●
Each duty area should contain
approximately 60-80 task statements
●
Task statements provide a
foundation (i.e., learning domain) for curriculum and evaluation (directly
tied to the types of learning activities and assessments to be utilized)
Verbs:
●
Verbs should reflect the highest
level of competency expected
--each higher behavior is assumed
to include the behavior at the lower levels
--lower levels of competency may
be addressed in the subtasks
●
Verbs specify observable and
measurable behavior to be displayed by the learner and must convey exact
intent (not open to multiple interpretations)
Experience
has shown that action verbs such as "define," "diagram,"
and "construct" are more effective in describing outcome behaviors
in comparison with tenns such as "know," "learn,"
"appreciate," and action "understand." verb must The be
key measurable point to remember and observable.
is
that the
Nouns: .
●
Nouns identify occupationally
relevant tasks
●
Nouns identify tasks appropriate
for entry-level workers
●
Nouns are of appropriate breadth
or inclusiveness (i.e., broader than subtasks, but narrower than duty areas)
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|
Writing
Performance Objectives
|
Definition:
A
perfonnance objective is a statement of exactly what the learner should be
able to do after instruction, indicating an activity that can be observed and
measured. A perfonnance objective contains three vital pieces of infonnation:
the conditions, the behavior, and the standard.
1. Conditions
●
the circumstances or restrictions
imposed on the student when he/she is demonstrating the behavior
●
often identifies the testing
situation used to determine student achievement of the objective
●
should be as close to a real-world
situation as possible
Examples:
A.
Given a list of examples
B.
Given a series of statements about
C.
Given a reference of the learner's
choice
D.
Without the aid of texts, notes,
or reference materials
2. Behavior
●
identifies the kind of performance
or behavior which will be required as evidence that the learner has achieved
the intended outcome
●
learner behavior is a precise,
observable, and measurable outcome which describes in terms of action what a
learner will be required to do
●
Verb and Noun taken directly from
the Task Statement
Examples:
A.
. . . .the student will define in
writing . . .
B.
. . . .the student will identify
the components . . .
C.
. . . .the student will construct
a . . .
D.
. . . .the student will justify. .
.
3. Standard
●
communicates to the learner the
quantity and quality of how well he/she is expected to complete the task
●
can be stated in terms such as the
actual percentage of achievement, the accuracy expected, the number of errors
permitted, the time allowed to complete the task, the degree or any other
appropriate level at which achievement is anticipated
●
must not be arbitrarily set but
based on the performance level needed on the job
Examples:
A.
. . . .accurate to the nearest
whole number
B.
. . . .within a
1/16"tolerance
C.
. . . .with 80 percent accuracy
D.
. . . .without any errors
|
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|
Common
Errors in Writing Performance Objectives
|
●
Describing teacher behavior rather
than student behavior
Example:
The
teacher will review a safety film with the class. The student will follow safety
procedures in the shop.
●
Listing subject matter to be
covered (vague topics)
Example:
The student will use appropriate
measures in solving problems.
●
Including more than one behavior
in each objective
Example:
The student will type, proofread,
edit, and mail a business letter.
●
Using vague or ambiguous standards
For
example:
.
. . to the instructor's satisfaction
(must define
"satisfaction" -- satisfaction will vary with instructors)
.
. . in accordance with thenperformance guide
(performance
guide simply tells "what" happens during task performance, not
"how well" it should happen
.
. . in accordance with manufacturer's specifications
(manufacturer
specifications are only procedural steps taken in task performance, not
standards of excellence expected as a result of performing the task. A
product standard, or only key points in the process should be measured.)
.
. . follow established procedures
(established
procedure has been outlined in the performance guide. Standards should
specifically state what the "procedures" followed should produce.)
.
. . the instructor must approve the work -- or --
.
. . performance will be evaluated by the instructor
(it is usually assumed that the
instructor will be the evaluator -- what constitutes adequate task
performance is needed)
.
. . task must be performed in a safe manner
(this is an assumed requirements
for all task performance -- specific
safety precautions expected should be described in the performance guide.)
.
. . terms such as “adequately,” “correctly,” “properly,” etc.
(not specific enough to assure
that the same interpretation will be applied by all evaluators)
The picture above is of the
Competency Profile CD. The Competency
Profiles in the CD are old, but the management function of the CD still
works. You can also UPDATE the data on
the CD with a little work. (Directions
are available.) When you get to your
new school assignment, check to see if this CD exists. Each school received one.
|
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|
|
Technical Education Glossary
(selected listings)
|
|||
|
Advisory
Committee
|
A
formal organized group of individuals to advise, counsel, and assist the
education policy making body and professional educators within a jurisdiction
of its planning, development, and evaluation of vocational education programs
and services. Those selected to serve are recognized for their specific knowledge,
skills, and expertise related to the work of work and education.
|
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|
All
Aspects of the Industry
|
Strong
experience in, and understanding of, all aspects of the industry the students
are preparing to enter, including planning, management, finances, technical
and production skills, underlying principles of technology, labor issues, and
health and safety.
|
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|
Applied
Academics
|
Courses
developed through national consortia for th.epurpose of making academic
concepts and principles relevant to the workplace. Courses have been
developed for mathematics, communications, and Sciences.
|
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|
Area
Career Centers
|
1.
A specialized high school used
exclusively or principally for the provision of vocational education to
individuals who are available for study in preparation for entering the labor
market;
2.
the department of a high school
exclusively or principally used for providing vocational education in not
less that five different occupational fields to individuals who are available
for study in preparation for entering the labor market;
3.
a technical institute or
vocational school used exclusively or principally for the provision of
vocational education to individuals who have completed or left high school
and who are available for study in preparation for entering the labor market;
or
4.
the department or division of a
junior college, community college or university operating under the State
board and which provides vocational education in not less than five different
occupational fields leading to immediate employment but not necessarily
leading to a baccalaureate degree, if in the case of a school, department, or
division described in subparagraph (C) or this subparagraph, it admits as
regular students both individuals who have completed high school and
individuals who have left high school.
|
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|
Articulation
|
A
prescribed curriculum sequence such as between grade levels, between
vocational and academic education, and between secondary and postsecondary
education that consists of interrelated components to achieve educational and
career goals.
|
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|
Career
Education Thread
|
A
lifelong learning process having a continuum that includes the three
components of K-5 awareness, 6-8 exploration and planning, and 9-12
preparation. All Kansas K-12 public educators are expected to include career development
concepts in their curriculum areas to better prepare students to lead a
satisfying and productive life in the school, in the work force, and in
society. Learner outcomes focus on self-awareness/ concept, self assessment,
career information, exploration, academic planning, equity, future trends,
employability skills/attitudes, goal setting, decision making, community
involvement, economics and personal finance, and vocational orientation.
|
|||
|
Competency
Based Education
|
A
systematic approach to teaching occupational skills in which classroom
content is organized into prestated job skills and students are evaluated on
successful completion of these skills. Professionals in business and industry
assist in the process of identifying occupational tasks for a specific job
area and students are evaluated on the successful completion of each task.
|
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|
CTSO
- Career/Technical
Student Organization
(CSO)
|
The
organizations for individuals enrolled in Career Pathways which engage in
activities as an integral part of the instructional program. Such organizations may have State and
International activities which emphasize Career Development.
|
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|
Integration
|
The
blending of academic and vocational learning within a sequence of
courses. Integration strategies may
utilize the course-work, academy, or cluster/career path model.
|
|||
|
Leaver
|
Anyone
who was accountability enrolled in a Career Pathway and has left the program
with marketable skills without completing the program.
|
|||
|
Measurable
Objective
|
A
statement of programmatic intent written in terms subject to evaluation.
|
|||
|
Non-Supplanting
|
The
requirement that federal funds be used to supplement, not supplant (take the
place of), funds from other other sources.
|
|||
|
Nontraditional
Employment
|
As
applied to women, refers to occupations or fields of work where women
comprise less than 25 percent of the individuals employed in such occupation
or field of work.
|
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|
Occupational
Cluster
|
The
grouping of instruction of vocational programs or competencies within
vocational programs to prepare students to fulfill a specific labor market
need.
|
|||
|
Portfolio
|
A
collection of materials that are representative of a student’s work. (writing samples, artistic creations,
projects)
|
|||
|
Preparatory
Services
|
Services,
programs, or actiites designed to assit individuals who are not enrolled in
vocational education programs in the selection of, or preparation for
participation in, an appropriate vocational education or training program
such as a) services, programs, or activities related to outreach to or recruitment
of potential counseling; b) vocational assessment and testing; and c) other
appropriate services, programs, or acticities.
|
|||
|
SCANS
Report
|
The
Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (U.S. Department of
Labor), which undertook a massive study of what employers in all areas of the
economy felt were the necessary skills for success in the work place. This
report identifies five competencies, which, in conjunction with a three-part
foundation of skills and personal qualities, lie at the heart of job
performance today. These eight areas represent essential preparation for all
students, both those going directly to work and those planning further
education. (U.S. Department of Labor)
|
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|
School-to-Work
Transitions
|
A
system designed to assist individuals preparing to enter the workforce prior
to and upon completion of an educational program. Such programs assist all
populations withjob searches, communication with potential employers,job
coaching during initial employment, and other activities designed to increase
the likelihood of successful placement. For students with disabilities, the
term "transition services" means a coordinated set of activities
for a student, designed within an outcome-oriented process, which promotes
movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary
education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported
employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent
living, or community participation. The coordinated set of activities shall
be based upon the individual student's needs, taking into account the
student's preferences and interests, and shall include instruction, community
experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living
objectives, and when appropriate acquisition of daily living skills and
functional vocational education.
|
|||
|
Special
Populations
|
Includes
individuals with handicaps, educational and economically disadvantaged
individuals (including foster children), individuals of limited English
proficiency, individuals who participate in programs designed to eliminate
sex bias, and individuals in correctional institutions.
|
|||
|
Tech
Prep Education
|
A
combined secondary and postsecondary program which leads to an associate
degree or two-year certificate; provides technical preparation in at least
one field of engineering technology, applied science, mechanical, industrial,
practical arts or trades, agriculture, health, or business and builds student
competence in mathematics, science and communications (including through
applied academics) through a sequential course of study and leads to
placement in employment.
|
|||
|
Tech
Prep Students
|
A
learner who is enrolled in a sequenced, articulated set of courses/
competencies that blends technical education with contextually-based math,
science, communications and technology education to provide knowledge, skills
and attitudes needed for employment and leading to an associate degree,
apprenticeship or professional certification.
|
|||
|
Technology
Education
|
An
applied discipline designed to promote technological literacy which provides
knowledge and understanding of the impacts of technology including its
organizations, techniques, tools, and skills to solve practical problems and
extend human capabilities in areas such as construction, manufacturing,
communication, transportation, power and energy.
|
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